The is a Japanese chemical company. It is particularly well known as a supplier of
liquid crystalLiquid crystals are a state of matter that has properties between those of a conventional liquid and those of a solid crystal. For instance, an LC may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like way. There are many different types of LC phases, which can be...
used for LCD displays.
Chisso has been the subject of controversy as the release of methyl mercury in the industrial wastewater from the Chisso Corporation's chemical factory (1932-1968) caused over a thousand deaths by
Minamata disease', sometimes referred to as , is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of vision and damage to hearing and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma and death...
in the city of
Minamatais a city located in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. It is on the west coast of Kyūshū. The city was founded on April 1, 1949.As of 2008, the city has an estimated population of 27,856 and the density of 171 persons per km²...
, Japan.
History
- Note: K.K. stands for Kabushiki kaisha
is a type of business defined under Japanese law.-Usage in language:Both kabushiki kaisha and the rendaku form kabushiki gaisha are used. The "K" spelling is much more common in the names of companies and in English-language legal literature, whereas the "G" pronunciation is dominant in...
: a corporationA corporation is a legal entity separate from the shareholders and employees. In British tradition it is the term designating a body corporate, where it can be either a corporation sole or a corporation aggregate...
regulated by Japanese lawThe modernization of the Law of Japan was based on the European legal system. At the beginning of Meiji era, the system of Europe – especially the civil law of Germany and France - was the model of the Japanese court system and legal system. However, after the Second World War, the Japanese legal...
.
Foundation
In 1906, Shitagau Noguchi, an
electrical engineeringElectrical engineering, sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering, is a field of engineering that deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century after...
graduate of Tokyo Imperial University, founded the which operated a hydroelectric power station in
Ōkuchiwas a city located in Kagoshima, Japan.Ōkuchi is the northernmost city on the mainland part of Kagoshima Prefecture. Only the island portion of Nagashima extends further north. Ōkuchi is a mountainous area that borders on Kumamoto Prefecture and Miyazaki Prefecture. Part of the southern border of...
,
Kagoshima Prefectureis a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyūshū. The capital is the city of Kagoshima.- Geography :Kagoshima Prefecture is located at the southwest tip of Kyūshū and includes a chain of islands stretching further to the southwest for a few hundred kilometers...
. The power station supplied electricity for the gold mines in Ōkuchi but had overcapacity. To make use of the surplus power, in 1908, Noguchi founded the which operated a
carbideIn chemistry, a carbide is a compound composed of carbon and a less electronegative element. Carbides can be generally classified by chemical bonding type as follows: salt-like, covalent compounds, interstitial compounds, and "intermediate" transition metal carbides...
factory in the coastal town of
Minamatais a city located in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. It is on the west coast of Kyūshū. The city was founded on April 1, 1949.As of 2008, the city has an estimated population of 27,856 and the density of 171 persons per km²...
,
Kumamoto Prefectureis a prefecture of Japan located on Kyūshū Island. The capital is the city of Kumamoto.- History :Historically the area was called Higo Province and was renamed to Kumamoto Prefecture during the Meiji Restoration as part of the abolition of the feudal system...
, about 30 km northwest of Ōkuchi. In the same year he merged the two companies to form the - usually referred to as
Nichitsu.
Expansion
In 1909, Noguchi purchased the rights to the Frank-Caro process, whereby atmospheric
nitrogenNitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N and atomic number 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78% by volume of Earth's atmosphere.Many industrially important...
was combined with
calcium carbidethumb|right|Calcium carbide.Calcium carbide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula of CaC
2. The material is colorless, but most samples have a color ranging from black to grayish-white, depending on the grade...
(a key product of the young company) to produce
calcium cyanamideCalcium cyanamide or CaCN2 is a calcium compound used as fertiliser, first synthesized in 1898 by Adolph Frank and Nikodem Caro. It is formed when calcium carbide reacts with nitrogen. It is commercially known as Nitrolim....
, a chemical
fertilizerFertilizers are chemical compounds applied to promote plant and fruit growth. Fertilizers are usually applied either through the soil or by foliar feeding...
. Nitrogenous fertilizers were key to boosting agricultural production in
Japanis an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
at the time, due to its lack of arable land and the small-scale nature of its farms, so the company found a ready market for its product. Nichitsu also branched out into other products produced from
calcium carbidethumb|right|Calcium carbide.Calcium carbide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula of CaC
2. The material is colorless, but most samples have a color ranging from black to grayish-white, depending on the grade...
, beginning production of
acetic acidAcetic acid, CH
3COOH, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic acid which gives vinegar its sour taste and pungent smell. It is a weak acid, in that it is only partially dissociated acid in aqueous solution...
,
ammoniaAmmonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH
3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers...
, explosives and
butanolButanol or butyl alcohol can refer to any of the four isomeric alcohols of formula C
4H
9OH:*n-Butanol, butan-1-ol, 1-butanol, n-butyl alcohol;*Isobutanol, 2-methylpropan-1-ol, isobutyl alcohol;...
.
Production of
ammonium sulfateAmmonium sulfate , 2SO4, is an inorganic salt with a number of commercial uses. The most common use is as a soil fertilizer. It contains 21% nitrogen as ammonium cations, and 24% sulfur as sulfate anions...
(another chemical fertilizer) started in 1914 at a plant in
Kagamiwas a town located in Yatsushiro District, Kumamoto, Japan. On August 1, 2005, the town merged with four other municipalities into the expanded city of Yatsushiro and no longer exists as an independent municipality....
,
Kumamoto Prefectureis a prefecture of Japan located on Kyūshū Island. The capital is the city of Kumamoto.- History :Historically the area was called Higo Province and was renamed to Kumamoto Prefecture during the Meiji Restoration as part of the abolition of the feudal system...
, using a
nitrogen fixationNitrogen fixation usually refers to the biological process by which nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia. This process is essential for life because fixed nitrogen is required to biosynthesize a basic building block of life, e.g. nucleotides for DNA and amino acids for proteins...
process - a Japan first. Sales of ammonium sulfate were increasing year-on-year as were market prices. A new plant was opened at the
Minamatais a city located in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. It is on the west coast of Kyūshū. The city was founded on April 1, 1949.As of 2008, the city has an estimated population of 27,856 and the density of 171 persons per km²...
factory in 1918 where it was able to produce ammonium sulfate for 70 yen per ton and sell it for five and a half times the cost. These massive profits enabled Nichitsu to survive the subsequent drop in prices after the return of foreign competition into the Japanese market after the end of
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
in Europe in September 1918.
After the war, Noguchi visited Europe and decided Nichitsu should pioneer an alternative synthesis of
ammonium sulfateAmmonium sulfate , 2SO4, is an inorganic salt with a number of commercial uses. The most common use is as a soil fertilizer. It contains 21% nitrogen as ammonium cations, and 24% sulfur as sulfate anions...
in Japan. In 1924, the Nichitsu plant at
Nobeokais the northernmost city located in Miyazaki, Japan.-Population:As of the January 1, 2008 merger, the city has an estimated population of 132,480 and a population density of 153 persons per km²...
began production using the Casale ammonia synthesis which required the use of extremely high temperatures and pressures. Once the process was proved a success, the
Minamatais a city located in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. It is on the west coast of Kyūshū. The city was founded on April 1, 1949.As of 2008, the city has an estimated population of 27,856 and the density of 171 persons per km²...
plant was converted to the process and began mass production.
Nichitsu grew steadily, invested its profits in new technology and expanded production into new areas and slowly became a large conglomerate of many different companies.
Nichitsu in Korea
In 1924, Shitagau Noguchi decided to expand Nichitsu into
KoreaKorea is a civilization and formerly unified nation currently divided into two states. Located on the Korean Peninsula, it borders China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait....
. In those days, Korea was a
colony of JapanKorea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Formally, Japanese rule ended on September 2, 1945 upon the Japanese defeat in World War II in 1945....
.
In 1926, he established two companies in Korea as subsidiaries of Nichitsu, mirroring the foundation of the parent company: and . Noguchi wanted to repeat his success in Ōkuchi and Minamata, but on an even greater scale in Korea.
The power company constructed hydroelectric power plants one after another along rivers draining into the
Yalu RiverThe Yalu River or the Amnok River is a river on the border between China and North Korea. The Chinese name comes from a Manchu word meaning "the boundary between two countries"...
. In 1927, the fertilizer subsidiary built a huge chemical complex in
HamhungHamhŭng is North Korea's second largest city, and the capital of South Hamgyŏng Province. In late 2005, nearby Hŭngnam was made a ward within Hamhŭng-si.-Geography:...
. The hydroelectric power plants supplied electricity for the chemical plant, in the same way as the Ōkuchi power plant had done so for the Minamata chemical factory.
Nichitsu invested Korea more aggressively than any other Japanese company. It and its subsidiaries grew rapidly in Korea, and came to be recognized as an emerging
zaibatsuis a Japanese term referring to industrial and financial business conglomerates in the Empire of Japan, whose influence and size allowed for control over significant parts of the Japanese economy from the Meiji period until the end of the Pacific War.-Terminology:...
.
The difference between Nichitsu's zaibatsu and established zaibatsu like
MitsubishiThe , Mitsubishi Group of Companies, or Mitsubishi Companies is a Japanese conglomerate consisting of a range of autonomous businesses which share the Mitsubishi brand, trademark and legacy...
and
Mitsuiis one of the largest corporate conglomerates in Japan and one of the largest publicly traded companies in the world.-History:Founded by Mitsui Takatoshi , who was born a fourth son of a shopkeeper in Matsusaka, called Echigoya in today's Mie prefecture. His father originally sold miso, a...
was that Nichitsu did not have its own bank and insurance company. Nichitsu therefore relied on government-controlled banks.
Dissolution and reorganization
As Japan lost the
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
in 1945, Nichitsu and its zaibatsu collapsed and was forced to abandon all properties and interests in Korea. Furthermore, the
AlliesIn general, allies are people, groups, or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose. In English usage, those who share a common goal and whose work toward that goal is complementary may be viewed as allies for various purposes even when...
that
occupied JapanAt the end of World War II, Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers, led by the United States with contributions also from Australia, India, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. This foreign presence marked the first time in its history that the island nation had been occupied by a foreign power...
ordered the dismissal of the company, regarding it as a company that adhered to the militarism government.
In 1950, the , usually referred to as
Shin Nichitsu, was founded as a successor of the old company. Other successor companies include
Asahi Kaseiis a Japanese company. The main products are chemicals and in materials science. The company has around 25,000 employees and had consolidated sales of ¥ 1.7 trillion in 2008. It was founded in 1931, and has its headquarters in Tokyo, with offices and plants in Osaka, China, Singapore, Thailand,...
and Sekisui Chemical.
Minamata disease
Nichitsu had started production of
acetaldehydeAcetaldehyde is an organic chemical compound with the formula CH3CHO or MeCHO. It is a flammable liquid. Acetaldehyde occurs naturally in ripe fruit, coffee, and bread, and is produced by plants as part of their normal metabolism...
using a
mercuryMercury , also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum , is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80...
catalyst at its
Minamatais a city located in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. It is on the west coast of Kyūshū. The city was founded on April 1, 1949.As of 2008, the city has an estimated population of 27,856 and the density of 171 persons per km²...
plant in May 1932, and Shin Nichitsu continued production after the war. The plant discharged wastewater from its acetaldehyde plant into to
Minamata BayMinamata is a small factory town. Minamata Bay is a bay on the west coast of Kyūshū island, located in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan. The bay is part of the larger Shiranui Sea which is sandwiched between the coast of the Kyūshū mainland and the off-lying islands of Kumamoto and Nagasaki...
via Hyakken Harbour. The wastewater contained many pollutants and poisonous substances including methyl mercury, a highly toxic chemical.
This chemical was absorbed by fish and shellfish and bioaccumulated up the
food chainFood chains describe the eating relationships between species within an ecosystem or a particular living place. Many types of food chains or webs are applicable depending on habitat or environmental factors...
. People who unknowingly ate the fish over many years suffered from severe mercury poisoning.
Hajime Hosokawa' was director of the company hospital attached to the Chisso corporation's chemical factory in Minamata, Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. He was the first doctor to discover and treat patients of the massive outbreak of mercury poisoning that occurred in the town which became known as Minamata...
, a doctor at a Shin Nichitsu's company hospital, officially reported on May 1, 1956 an "epidemic of an unknown disease of the central nervous system", marking the official discovery of Minamata disease.
In 1963, doctors at
Kumamoto Universityis a university located in Kumamoto, Japan. It was established on May 31, 1949, at which time the following institutions were subsumed into it; Kumamoto Teachers College , Kumamoto Pharmaceutical College , The Fifth High School , Kumamoto Medical College , and Kumamoto Technical College ....
concluded that the cause of Minamata disease was mercury emitted by Shin Nippon Chisso Hiryo. In 1965, the company changed its name to . In May 1968, Chisso finally stopped using a
mercuryMercury , also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum , is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80...
catalyst in the production of
acetaldehydeAcetaldehyde is an organic chemical compound with the formula CH3CHO or MeCHO. It is a flammable liquid. Acetaldehyde occurs naturally in ripe fruit, coffee, and bread, and is produced by plants as part of their normal metabolism...
. In 1969, patients sued Chisso for compensation. Many lawsuits were filed against Chisso after 1969, and some of them go on even now.
Chisso used
yakuza, also known as and violence groups, are members of traditional organized crime syndicates in Japan.-Etymology:The term Yakuza comes from a Japanese game, Oicho-Kabu . The worst hand in the game is a set of eight, nine and three...
in order to threaten and silence patients and their supporters. Patients and their supporters started the "single shareholder" movement by buying one share of Chisso each, which was aimed at accusing the executives of Chisso in its general meeting. A thousand of the single shareholders participating in the movement gathered in front of a hall in
Osakais a city in Japan, located at the mouth of the Yodo River on Osaka Bay, in the Kansai region of the main island of Honshū.Osaka is a City in Japan and also is designated city under the Local Autonomy Law and the capital city of Osaka Prefecture...
to attend the general meeting called on November 28, 1970, but the company prevented them from entering the hall by asking yakuza to become shareholders and occupy the hall. The meeting ended in five minutes with all the bills submitted by the board approved.
In addition, Chisso had American photographer and photo-journalist
W. Eugene SmithWilliam Eugene Smith was an American photojournalist known for his refusal to compromise professional standards and his brutally vivid World War II photographs.- Life and Work :...
beaten by yakuza goons after Smith published a highly regarded photo-essay showing the caustic injuries and birth defects Chisso had caused the Minamata population. The centerpiece of the work, titled "
Tomoko Uemura in Her BathTomoko Uemura in Her Bath is a renowned photograph taken by famed American photojournalist W. Eugene Smith in 1971. Many commentators regard Tomoko as Smith's greatest work. The black and white photo depicts a mother cradling her severely deformed, naked daughter in a traditional Japanese bathing...
", depicted the severe deformation of a child in her mother's arms after the child was exposed to the effects of Chisso's contamination of the water supply. In response to Chisso's beating of W. Eugene Smith for dissemination of the photographs, Smith was awarded the
Robert Capa Gold MedalThe Robert Capa Gold Medal is an award for "best published photographic reporting from abroad requiring exceptional courage and enterprise". It is awarded annually by the Overseas Press Club of America . It was created in honor of the war photographer Robert Capa. The first Robert Capa Gold Medal...
in 1974 for "best published photographic reporting from abroad requiring exceptional courage and enterprise".
The company's "historical overview" in its current website makes no mention of their role in the mass contamination of Minamata and the dreadful aftermath. Their 2004 Annual Report however reports an equivalent of about US$50 million (5,820 million yen) in "Minamata Disease Compensation Liabilities". From 2000 to 2003, the company also reported total compensation liabilities of over US$170 million. Their 2000 accounts also show that the
Japanese- Legislative branch :The National Diet of Japan is Japan's legislature. It consists of two houses: the House of Representatives of Japan and the House of Councillors. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under a parallel voting system....
and
Kumamoto prefecturalis a prefecture of Japan located on Kyūshū Island. The capital is the city of Kumamoto.- History :Historically the area was called Higo Province and was renamed to Kumamoto Prefecture during the Meiji Restoration as part of the abolition of the feudal system...
governments waived an enormous US$560 million in related liabilities. Their FY2004 and FY2005 reports refer to Minamata disease as "
Mad Hatter's DiseaseMad hatter disease is a disease of the nervous system caused by mercury poisoning.The name refers to the effects of chronic mercury exposure on hatters who had to work with mercury-treated fur and felt. It was an occurrence in the 1800s. Mercury was once used in the making of hats. This is known to...
", a term coined from the mercury poisoning experienced by hat-makers of the last few centuries (cf
Mad HatterThe Hatter is a fictional character initially encountered at a tea party in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and later again as "Hatta" in the story's sequel, Through the Looking-Glass...
).
External links
Chisso Corporation
- Masters of Photography W. Eugene Smith
William Eugene Smith was an American photojournalist known for his refusal to compromise professional standards and his brutally vivid World War II photographs.- Life and Work :...
: Tomoko Uemura in Her Bath, Minamata, 1972