Buddhology
Encyclopedia
Buddhology is the study of the Buddha
or Buddhahood
. The term is also used as a synonym for Buddhist Studies
, contemporary academic investigation of Buddhism.
There are varied and nuanced understandings of the precise nature of a Buddha expressed in the different Buddhist traditions and movements.
Buddhists base their view of the Buddha on the Pali Canon
, which appear to be the oldest surviving Buddhist scriptures. From the accounts contained in the Pali Canon emerges the view that Buddha was a human being — a perfected human being. Buddha was also possessed of all the various supernatural powers, and mastered these to the greatest extent possible (Digha Nikaya
11: Kevatta Sutta). The body and mind of a Buddha (while alive) are impermanent and changing, just like the body and mind of ordinary people. A Buddha does recognize the unchanging nature of the Dharma, which is an eternal principle, and an unconditioned and timeless phenomenon.
When Buddha died at the age of 80, his body and mind both came to an end. After death, the state of Buddha is undefinable (MN 22
). A Buddha does, however, definitely not experience rebirth
after death, but experiences the attainment of Parinibbana (the ultimate Nirvana
). There is thus an end to the life-continuity of rebirths succeeding one-another (this is one of the meanings of samsara
).
In Theravada, a Buddha is not regarded as a god
nor as having created the universe or ruling over it.
), one is really far from him. But when one sees the Dharma, even if one is very far away, it is as if one is very close to him, because one really sees what Buddhahood is about. According to the Theravada tradition, the context of the teaching thus does not support any claim for the Buddha to have meant that his existence is God-like (permanent, unchanging, timeless), which is how this sentence is sometimes interpreted in Mahayana Buddhism.
, Bhavaviveka
and Vinitadeva, the main Mahāsānghika
theses, apparently also held in common by all the Mahāsānghika sub-groups, concerning the nature of Buddhas were:
, which was written down about 500 years after Shakyamuni`s preaching of it.. The Lotus Sutra has the Buddha indicating that he became awakened countless, immeasurable, inconceivable trillions of aeons ("kalpas") ago and that his lifetime is "forever existing and immortal". The sutra itself, however, does not directly employ the phrase "eternal Buddha"; yet similar notions are found in other Mahayana scriptures, notably the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, which presents the Buddha as the ultimately real, eternal ("nitya"/ "śāśvata"), unchanging, blissful, pure Self (Atman) who, as the Dharmakaya
, knows of no beginning or end. The notion of an eternal Buddha perhaps finds resonance with the earlier idea of eternal Dharma/Nirvana, of which the Buddha is said to be an embodiment.
While Theravada Buddhism holds back from stating that the Buddha is eternal and emphasises all-round impermanence, some expressions of Mahayana Buddhism, however, regard such an understanding as incomplete. The Tathagatagarbha sutras provide an allegedly culminational doctrine of a pure Selfhood (the eternal yet ungraspable hypostasis of the Buddha) which no longer generates karma and which subsists eternally in the realm of Nirvana, from which sphere help to suffering worldly beings can be sent forth in the forms of various transitory physical Buddhas ("nirmānakāyas"). While the bodies of these corporeal Buddhas are subject to disease, decline and death - like all impermanent things - the salvational Tathagata or Dharmakaya behind them is forever free from impairment, impermanence and mortality. It is this transcendent yet immanent Dharmakaya-Buddha which is taught in certain major Mahayana sutras to be immutable and eternal and is intimately linked with Dharma itself. According to the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra
, worldly beings fail to see this eternality of the Buddha and his Dharma. The Buddha declares in that latter Mahayana sutra, which presents itself as the last and most definitive of all sutras: "I say that those who do not know that the Tathagata [Buddha] is eternal are the foremost of the congenitally blind."
: 佛性, modern pinyin
fó xìng, literally corresponds to the Sanskrit, Buddha-dhatu - "Buddha Element", "Buddha-Principle", but seems to have been used most frequently to translate the Sanskrit Tathāgata-garbha
, meaning "Buddha Matrix", which would be more directly translated into Chinese as 如来蔵) is a doctrine important for many schools of Mahayana
Buddhism
. The Buddha Nature or Buddha Principle (Buddha-dhatu) is taught to be a truly real, but internally hidden immortal potency or element within the purest depths of the mind, present in all sentient
beings, for awakening
and becoming a Buddha
.
, literally "Three bodies or personalities"; 三身 Chinese
: Sānshén, Japanese
: sanjin) is an important Buddhist teaching both on the nature of reality, and what a Buddha is. By the 4th century CE the trikaya doctrine had assumed its current form. Briefly the doctrine says that a Buddha has three kayas or bodies: the nirmanakaya or created body which manifests in time and space; the sambhogakaya
or body of mutual enjoyment which is an archetypal manifestation; and the Dharmakaya
or reality body which embodies the very principle of enlightenment and knows no limits or boundaries. In the view of Anuyoga
, the 'Mindstream
' (Sanksrit: citta santana) is the 'continuity' (Sanskrit: santana; Wylie: rgyud) that links the Trikaya. The Trikaya, as a triune, is symbolised by the Gankyil
.
Gautama Buddha
Siddhārtha Gautama was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. In most Buddhist traditions, he is regarded as the Supreme Buddha Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from the Indian...
or Buddhahood
Buddhahood
In Buddhism, buddhahood is the state of perfect enlightenment attained by a buddha .In Buddhism, the term buddha usually refers to one who has become enlightened...
. The term is also used as a synonym for Buddhist Studies
Buddhist Studies
Buddhist studies, also known as Buddhology , is the academic study of Buddhism. The term applies especially to the modern academic field, which is a subset of Religious Studies, and is distinct from Buddhist philosophy or Buddhist theology...
, contemporary academic investigation of Buddhism.
There are varied and nuanced understandings of the precise nature of a Buddha expressed in the different Buddhist traditions and movements.
Basic View: Buddha was a Perfect Human Being
TheravadaTheravada
Theravada ; literally, "the Teaching of the Elders" or "the Ancient Teaching", is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It was founded in India...
Buddhists base their view of the Buddha on the Pali Canon
Pāli Canon
The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the only completely surviving early Buddhist canon, and one of the first to be written down...
, which appear to be the oldest surviving Buddhist scriptures. From the accounts contained in the Pali Canon emerges the view that Buddha was a human being — a perfected human being. Buddha was also possessed of all the various supernatural powers, and mastered these to the greatest extent possible (Digha Nikaya
Digha Nikaya
The Digha Nikaya is a Buddhist scripture, the first of the five nikayas, or collections, in the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three baskets" that compose the Pali Tipitaka of Theravada Buddhism...
11: Kevatta Sutta). The body and mind of a Buddha (while alive) are impermanent and changing, just like the body and mind of ordinary people. A Buddha does recognize the unchanging nature of the Dharma, which is an eternal principle, and an unconditioned and timeless phenomenon.
When Buddha died at the age of 80, his body and mind both came to an end. After death, the state of Buddha is undefinable (MN 22
Majjhima Nikaya
The Majjhima Nikaya is a Buddhist scripture, the second of the five nikayas, or collections, in the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three baskets" that compose the Pali Tipitaka of Theravada Buddhism...
). A Buddha does, however, definitely not experience rebirth
Rebirth (Buddhism)
Rebirth in Buddhism is the doctrine that the evolving consciousness or stream of consciousness upon death , becomes one of the contributing causes for the arising of a new aggregation...
after death, but experiences the attainment of Parinibbana (the ultimate Nirvana
Nirvana
Nirvāṇa ; ) is a central concept in Indian religions. In sramanic thought, it is the state of being free from suffering. In Hindu philosophy, it is the union with the Supreme being through moksha...
). There is thus an end to the life-continuity of rebirths succeeding one-another (this is one of the meanings of samsara
Samsara
thumb|right|200px|Traditional Tibetan painting or [[Thanka]] showing the [[wheel of life]] and realms of saṃsāraSaṅsāra or Saṃsāra , , literally meaning "continuous flow", is the cycle of birth, life, death, rebirth or reincarnation within Hinduism, Buddhism, Bön, Jainism, Sikhism, and other...
).
In Theravada, a Buddha is not regarded as a god
God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism....
nor as having created the universe or ruling over it.
Meaning of 'Whoever Sees the Dharma Sees Me'
Theravada Buddhism interprets the statement by Buddha that "whoever sees the Dharma sees me (that is; the Buddha)" in the context of the whole conversation which the Buddha held on that occasion. The goal of this teaching was to make clear that the physical body of the Buddha is not the essence of his being, and that seeing his body doesn't tell you much about him at all. Even when one is sitting next to him, if one doesn't know his teaching (or sees the truth he discovered: DharmaDharma
Dharma means Law or Natural Law and is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion. In the context of Hinduism, it refers to one's personal obligations, calling and duties, and a Hindu's dharma is affected by the person's age, caste, class, occupation, and gender...
), one is really far from him. But when one sees the Dharma, even if one is very far away, it is as if one is very close to him, because one really sees what Buddhahood is about. According to the Theravada tradition, the context of the teaching thus does not support any claim for the Buddha to have meant that his existence is God-like (permanent, unchanging, timeless), which is how this sentence is sometimes interpreted in Mahayana Buddhism.
Mahāsānghika
According to the descriptions of sectarian tenets by VasumitraVasumitra
Vasumitra , was the fourth King of the Sunga Dynasty of Northern India...
, Bhavaviveka
Bhavaviveka
Bhavyaviveka was the founder of the Svatantrika tradition of the Mādhyamaka school of Buddhism. Ames , holds that Bhavyaviveka is one of the first Buddhist logicians to employ the 'formal syllogism' of Indian Logic in expounding the Mādhyamaka which he employed to considerable effect...
and Vinitadeva, the main Mahāsānghika
Mahasamghika
The ' , literally the "Great Saṃgha", was one of the early Buddhist schools in ancient India.The origins of the sect of Buddhism are still extremely uncertain, and the subject of debate among scholars. One reason for the interest in the origins of the school is that their Vinaya recension appears...
theses, apparently also held in common by all the Mahāsānghika sub-groups, concerning the nature of Buddhas were:
- Buddhas are supramundane.
- Buddhas are devoid of all impurities (anāsrava) and mundane qualities.
- Buddhas preach the Dharma with every verbal utterance they make.
- Buddhas can express all elements of the Dharma by uttering a single sound.
- The material body (rūpakāya) of Buddhas is unlimited (anatman)
- The supernatural powers (prabhāva) of Buddhas are unlimited.
- The longevity of Buddhas is unlimited.
- In order to convert beings and to generate pure faith within them, Buddhas have no thought of satiation
- Buddhas neither sleep nor dream
- Buddhas reply to questions without the need for reflection.
- Buddhas never actually utter any words since they abide in eternal samādhiSamadhiSamadhi in Hinduism, Buddhism,Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools is a higher level of concentrated meditation, or dhyāna. In the yoga tradition, it is the eighth and final limb identified in the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali....
or meditative concentration, but beings perceive words to have been uttered. - Buddhas understand all things with one momentary thought.
- Buddhas know all things because insight or prajñā is conjoined to that one momentary thought.
- The knowledge of cessation and of non-arising in the future are sustained continuously in Buddhas until they enter parinirvānaParinirvanaIn Buddhism, parinirvana is the final nirvana, which occurs upon the death of the body of someone who has attained complete awakening...
. - There are Buddhas dwelling in all directions of the compass.
Eternal Buddha
An important doctrine that flourished during the middle period of the unfolding of the Mahayana - and is still important today amongst certain Mahayana schools of Buddhism - is that of the Buddha's immortality and eternity. The idea of an eternal Buddha is a notion popularly associated with the Mahayana scripture, the Lotus SutraLotus Sutra
The Lotus Sūtra is one of the most popular and influential Mahāyāna sūtras, and the basis on which the Tiantai and Nichiren sects of Buddhism were established.-Title:...
, which was written down about 500 years after Shakyamuni`s preaching of it.. The Lotus Sutra has the Buddha indicating that he became awakened countless, immeasurable, inconceivable trillions of aeons ("kalpas") ago and that his lifetime is "forever existing and immortal". The sutra itself, however, does not directly employ the phrase "eternal Buddha"; yet similar notions are found in other Mahayana scriptures, notably the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, which presents the Buddha as the ultimately real, eternal ("nitya"/ "śāśvata"), unchanging, blissful, pure Self (Atman) who, as the Dharmakaya
Dharmakaya
The Dharmakāya is a central idea in Mahayana Buddhism forming part of the Trikaya doctrine that was possibly first expounded in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā prajñā-pāramitā , composed in the 1st century BCE...
, knows of no beginning or end. The notion of an eternal Buddha perhaps finds resonance with the earlier idea of eternal Dharma/Nirvana, of which the Buddha is said to be an embodiment.
While Theravada Buddhism holds back from stating that the Buddha is eternal and emphasises all-round impermanence, some expressions of Mahayana Buddhism, however, regard such an understanding as incomplete. The Tathagatagarbha sutras provide an allegedly culminational doctrine of a pure Selfhood (the eternal yet ungraspable hypostasis of the Buddha) which no longer generates karma and which subsists eternally in the realm of Nirvana, from which sphere help to suffering worldly beings can be sent forth in the forms of various transitory physical Buddhas ("nirmānakāyas"). While the bodies of these corporeal Buddhas are subject to disease, decline and death - like all impermanent things - the salvational Tathagata or Dharmakaya behind them is forever free from impairment, impermanence and mortality. It is this transcendent yet immanent Dharmakaya-Buddha which is taught in certain major Mahayana sutras to be immutable and eternal and is intimately linked with Dharma itself. According to the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra
Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra
The Nirvana Sutra or ' ; ; ).) is one of the major sutras of Mahayana Buddhism. It shares its title with another well-known Buddhist scripture, the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali Canon but is quite different in form and content...
, worldly beings fail to see this eternality of the Buddha and his Dharma. The Buddha declares in that latter Mahayana sutra, which presents itself as the last and most definitive of all sutras: "I say that those who do not know that the Tathagata [Buddha] is eternal are the foremost of the congenitally blind."
Buddha-dhatu theories
Buddha-nature (Classical ChineseClassical Chinese
Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Chinese, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese...
: 佛性, modern pinyin
Pinyin
Pinyin is the official system to transcribe Chinese characters into the Roman alphabet in China, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan. It is also often used to teach Mandarin Chinese and spell Chinese names in foreign publications and used as an input method to enter Chinese characters into...
fó xìng, literally corresponds to the Sanskrit, Buddha-dhatu - "Buddha Element", "Buddha-Principle", but seems to have been used most frequently to translate the Sanskrit Tathāgata-garbha
Tathagatagarbha doctrine
In Mahāyāna, The "Tathāgatagarbha Sutras" are a collection of Mahayana sutras which present a unique model of Buddha-nature, i.e. the original vision of the Buddha-nature as an ungenerated, unconditioned and immortal Buddhic element within all beings. Even though this collection was generally...
, meaning "Buddha Matrix", which would be more directly translated into Chinese as 如来蔵) is a doctrine important for many schools of Mahayana
Mahayana
Mahāyāna is one of the two main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophies and practice...
Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
. The Buddha Nature or Buddha Principle (Buddha-dhatu) is taught to be a truly real, but internally hidden immortal potency or element within the purest depths of the mind, present in all sentient
Sentience
Sentience is the ability to feel, perceive or be conscious, or to have subjective experiences. Eighteenth century philosophers used the concept to distinguish the ability to think from the ability to feel . In modern western philosophy, sentience is the ability to have sensations or experiences...
beings, for awakening
Bodhi
Bodhi is both a Pāli and Sanskrit word traditionally translated into English with the word "enlightenment", but which means awakened. In Buddhism it is the knowledge possessed by a Buddha into the nature of things...
and becoming a Buddha
Buddhahood
In Buddhism, buddhahood is the state of perfect enlightenment attained by a buddha .In Buddhism, the term buddha usually refers to one who has become enlightened...
.
Trikaya theories
The Trikaya doctrine (SanskritSanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
, literally "Three bodies or personalities"; 三身 Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
: Sānshén, Japanese
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
: sanjin) is an important Buddhist teaching both on the nature of reality, and what a Buddha is. By the 4th century CE the trikaya doctrine had assumed its current form. Briefly the doctrine says that a Buddha has three kayas or bodies: the nirmanakaya or created body which manifests in time and space; the sambhogakaya
Sambhogakaya
The Sambhogakāya is the second mode or aspect of the Trikaya. Sambhogakaya has also been translated as the "deity dimension", "body of bliss" or "astral body". Sambhogakaya refers to the luminous form of clear light the Buddhist practitioner attains upon the reaching the highest dimensions of...
or body of mutual enjoyment which is an archetypal manifestation; and the Dharmakaya
Dharmakaya
The Dharmakāya is a central idea in Mahayana Buddhism forming part of the Trikaya doctrine that was possibly first expounded in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā prajñā-pāramitā , composed in the 1st century BCE...
or reality body which embodies the very principle of enlightenment and knows no limits or boundaries. In the view of Anuyoga
Anuyoga
Anuyoga is the designation of the second of the three Inner Tantras according to the ninefold division of practice used by the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism...
, the 'Mindstream
Mindstream
Mindstream in Buddhist philosophy is the moment-to-moment "continuum" of awareness. There are a number of terms in the Buddhist literature that may well be rendered "mindstream"...
' (Sanksrit: citta santana) is the 'continuity' (Sanskrit: santana; Wylie: rgyud) that links the Trikaya. The Trikaya, as a triune, is symbolised by the Gankyil
Gankyil
The Gankyil[Tibetan:དགའ་འཁྱིལ་] is a symbol and ritual tool in Tibetan Buddhism, Bön, Himalayan Shamanism and Korean Buddhism. In Bön and Nyingma Dzogchen lineages, the Gankyil is the principal symbol and teaching tool: it is symbolic of primordial energy and represents the central unity and...
.
Further reading
- Bareau, André: Les Sectes Bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule (Paris: École Francaise D'Extrême-Orient, 1955)