Schizothorax
Encyclopedia
Schizothorax is a genus
of cyprinid
fish
from Central
and East Asia
. Their scientific name means "cleft-breast", from Ancient Greek
schízeïn (σχίζειν) "to cleave" + thórax (θώραξ) "breast-plate" (see also thorax
). The western species
are typically referred to as marinkas from their Russian name marinka (маринка; plural: маринки marinki), while the eastern species are usually called "snowtrout
s". But though they do resemble trout
s in habitus
this is merely due to convergent evolution
and they are by no means closely related apart from both being Teleostei
: Cyprinids are in the teleost superorder Ostariophysi
, while trouts are in the superorder Protacanthopterygii
. Their ancestors must thus have diverged as early as the Triassic
, more than 200 million years ago. The type species
of Schizothorax is the Asaila (S. plagiostomus
).
Other "snowtrouts" – most if not all presumably closely related to Schizothorax – are found in the genera Diptychus
, Ptychobarbus
, Schizopyge
and Schizopygopsis
. The latter two were formerly often included in the present genus, and their delimitation is still not entirely clear. In any case, the genus Schizothorax (and other "snowtrouts") are in turn related to such cyprinids as the typical barbels (Barbus
sensu stricto and the doubtfully distinct Luciobarbus
and Messinobarbus), Carasobarbus
, Labeobarbus
(yellowfish), Aulopyge (Dalmatian Barbelgudgeon), and Cyprinion
. They were thus placed in the subfamily Barbinae, which is quite paraphyletic however and thus here merged with the Cyprininae at least for the largest part (including the marinkas), becoming its junior synonym in the process.
are also listed. New species of Schizothorax are still being discovered occasionally:
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
of cyprinid
Cyprinid
The family Cyprinidae, from the Ancient Greek kyprînos , consists of the carps, the true minnows, and their relatives . Commonly called the carp family or the minnow family, its members are also known as cyprinids...
fish
Fish
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
from Central
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
and East Asia
East Asia
East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...
. Their scientific name means "cleft-breast", from Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
schízeïn (σχίζειν) "to cleave" + thórax (θώραξ) "breast-plate" (see also thorax
Thorax
The thorax is a division of an animal's body that lies between the head and the abdomen.-In tetrapods:...
). The western species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
are typically referred to as marinkas from their Russian name marinka (маринка; plural: маринки marinki), while the eastern species are usually called "snowtrout
Snowtrout
A snowtrout is any of a number of ray-finned fishes from the Himalayas region. These cyprinids resemble the very distantly related trouts in habitus due to convergent evolution.Genera containing "snowtrouts" are:* Diptychus* Ptychobarbus...
s". But though they do resemble trout
Trout
Trout is the name for a number of species of freshwater and saltwater fish belonging to the Salmoninae subfamily of the family Salmonidae. Salmon belong to the same family as trout. Most salmon species spend almost all their lives in salt water...
s in habitus
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
this is merely due to convergent evolution
Convergent evolution
Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages.The wing is a classic example of convergent evolution in action. Although their last common ancestor did not have wings, both birds and bats do, and are capable of powered flight. The wings are...
and they are by no means closely related apart from both being Teleostei
Teleostei
Teleostei is one of three infraclasses in class Actinopterygii, the ray-finned fishes. This diverse group, which arose in the Triassic period, includes 20,000 extant species in about 40 orders; most living fishes are members of this group...
: Cyprinids are in the teleost superorder Ostariophysi
Ostariophysi
Ostariophysi is the second-largest superorder of fish. Members of this superorder are called ostariophysians. This diverse group contains almost 8,000 species, about 28% of known fish species in the world and 68% of freshwater species, and are present on all major continents except Antarctica...
, while trouts are in the superorder Protacanthopterygii
Protacanthopterygii
Protacanthopterygii is a ray-finned fish taxon ranked as a superorder of the infraclass Teleostei. They inhabit both marine and freshwater habitat...
. Their ancestors must thus have diverged as early as the Triassic
Triassic
The Triassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about 250 to 200 Mya . As the first period of the Mesozoic Era, the Triassic follows the Permian and is followed by the Jurassic. Both the start and end of the Triassic are marked by major extinction events...
, more than 200 million years ago. The type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
of Schizothorax is the Asaila (S. plagiostomus
Schizothorax plagiostomus
Schizothorax plagiostomus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax. Schizothorax plagiostomus locally known as Khont has an elongated sub cylindrical body with short, blunt and slightly prognathous upper jaw. Ventral surface of Head and anterior part of body flattish, short,...
).
Other "snowtrouts" – most if not all presumably closely related to Schizothorax – are found in the genera Diptychus
Diptychus
Diptychus is a genus of cyprinid fish, consisting of two Asian species. The type species is the scaly osman, Diptychus maculatus. The name is derived from the Greek word di, meaning "two", and the Greek word ptyx, meaning "fold".-Species:...
, Ptychobarbus
Ptychobarbus
Ptychobarbus is a genus of cyprinid fish that is found in Asia. There are currently four described species in the genus.-Species:* Ptychobarbus chungtienensis * Ptychobarbus conirostris Steindachner, 1866...
, Schizopyge
Schizopyge
Schizopyge is a genus of cyprinid fish found in southern Asia.- Species :* Schizopyge curvifrons * Schizopyge dainellii * Schizopyge niger...
and Schizopygopsis
Schizopygopsis
Schizopygopsis is a genus of cyprinid fish found in Asia. There are currently eight recognized species in this genus.- Species :* Schizopygopsis anteroventris Wu & Tsao, 1989* Schizopygopsis kessleri Herzenstein, 1891...
. The latter two were formerly often included in the present genus, and their delimitation is still not entirely clear. In any case, the genus Schizothorax (and other "snowtrouts") are in turn related to such cyprinids as the typical barbels (Barbus
Barbus
Barbus is a ray-finned fish genus in the family Cyprinidae. The type species of Barbus is the Common Barbel, first described as Cyprinus barbus and now named Barbus barbus...
sensu stricto and the doubtfully distinct Luciobarbus
Luciobarbus
Luciobarbus is a somewhat disputed genus of ray-finned fishes in the family Cyprinidae. Its species are mainly found around the Mediterranean region. Its type species is the Mangar , for which the genus was established by Heckel in 1843...
and Messinobarbus), Carasobarbus
Carasobarbus
Carasobarbus is a small genus of ray-finned fishes in the family Cyprinidae. Its species are found around the Near East region.Like many other "barbs", it was long included in Barbus...
, Labeobarbus
Labeobarbus
Labeobarbus is a mid-sized ray-finned fish genus in the family Cyprinidae. Its species are widely distributed throughout eastern Africa and especially southern Africa, but also in Lake Tana in Ethiopia. A common name, in particular for the southern species, is yellowfish...
(yellowfish), Aulopyge (Dalmatian Barbelgudgeon), and Cyprinion
Cyprinion
Cyprinion is a genus of ray-finned fish in the family Cyprinidae.- Species :* Cyprinion acinaces Banister & M. A. Clarke, 1977** Cyprinion acinaces acinaces Banister & M. A. Clarke, 1977...
. They were thus placed in the subfamily Barbinae, which is quite paraphyletic however and thus here merged with the Cyprininae at least for the largest part (including the marinkas), becoming its junior synonym in the process.
Species
Some important subspeciesSubspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
are also listed. New species of Schizothorax are still being discovered occasionally:
- Schizothorax argentatusSchizothorax argentatusSchizothorax argentatus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
KesslerKarl Fedorovich KesslerKarl Fedorovich Kessler was a German-Russian zoologist and author of zoological taxa signed Kessler, who was mostly active in Kiev, Ukraine and conducted most of his studies of birds in Ukrainian regions of the Russian Empire - Kiev Governorate, Volyn Governorate, Kherson Governorate, Poltava...
, 1874 (Balkhash Marinka) - Schizothorax beipanensisSchizothorax beipanensisSchizothorax beipanensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
J. Yang, X. Y. Chen & J. X. Yang, 2009 - Schizothorax biddulphiSchizothorax biddulphiSchizothorax biddulphi is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Günther, 1876 - Schizothorax chongiSchizothorax chongiSchizothorax chongi is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(P. W. Fang, 1936) - Schizothorax cryptolepisSchizothorax cryptolepisSchizothorax cryptolepis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
T. Y. Fu & M. R. Ye, 1984 - Schizothorax curvilabiatusSchizothorax curvilabiatusSchizothorax curvilabiatus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(Wu & Tsao, 1992) - Schizothorax davidiSchizothorax davidiSchizothorax davidi is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(SauvageHenri Émile Sauvage- Works :Articles in The Popular Science Monthly:* “Amphibious Fishes,” in Popular Science Monthly Volume 9, September 1876* “The Archer-Fishes,” in Popular Science Monthly Volume 12, January 1878* “The Matamata,” in Popular Science Monthly Volume 16, March 1880...
, 1880) - Schizothorax dolichonemaSchizothorax dolichonemaSchizothorax dolichonema is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Herzenstein, 1889 - Schizothorax dulongensisSchizothorax dulongensisSchizothorax dulongensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
S. Y. Huang, 1985 - Schizothorax edenianaSchizothorax edenianaSchizothorax edeniana is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
McClelland, 1842 - Schizothorax elongatusSchizothorax elongatusSchizothorax elongatus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
S. Y. Huang, 1985 - Schizothorax esocinus HeckelJohann Jakob HeckelJohann Jakob Heckel was an Austrian taxidermist, zoologist, and ichthyologist from Mannheim.Though not a formally trained zoologist he worked his way up through the ranks to eventually become the director of the Fish Collection at the Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna...
, 1838 (Chirruh snowtrout) - Schizothorax eurystomusSchizothorax eurystomusSchizothorax eurystomus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
KesslerKarl Fedorovich KesslerKarl Fedorovich Kessler was a German-Russian zoologist and author of zoological taxa signed Kessler, who was mostly active in Kiev, Ukraine and conducted most of his studies of birds in Ukrainian regions of the Russian Empire - Kiev Governorate, Volyn Governorate, Kherson Governorate, Poltava...
, 1872 - Schizothorax gongshanensisSchizothorax gongshanensisSchizothorax gongshanensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
W. H. Tsao, 1964 - Schizothorax grahamiSchizothorax grahamiSchizothorax grahami is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(Regan, 1904) - Schizothorax griseusSchizothorax griseusSchizothorax griseus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
PellegrinJacques PellegrinJacques Pellegrin was a French zoologist.Pellegrin was born in Paris, and studied natural history. In 1894 he became assistant chairman of zoology at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, replacing Léon Vaillant .He got his doctorates in medicine and science...
, 1931 - Schizothorax heterochilusSchizothorax heterochilusSchizothorax heterochilus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
M. R. Ye & T. Y. Fu, 1986 - Schizothorax heterophysallidosSchizothorax heterophysallidosSchizothorax heterophysallidos is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
J. Yang, X. Y. Chen & J. X. Yang, 2009 - Schizothorax huegeliiSchizothorax huegeliiSchizothorax huegelii is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
HeckelJohann Jakob HeckelJohann Jakob Heckel was an Austrian taxidermist, zoologist, and ichthyologist from Mannheim.Though not a formally trained zoologist he worked his way up through the ranks to eventually become the director of the Fish Collection at the Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna...
, 1838 - Schizothorax integrilabiatusSchizothorax integrilabiatusSchizothorax integrilabiatus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(Wu et al., 1992) - Schizothorax kozloviSchizothorax kozloviSchizothorax kozlovi is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
NikolskiiAlexander Mikhailovich NikolskyAlexander Mikhailovich Nikolsky was a Russian zoologist born in Astrakhan.From 1877 to 1881 he studied at the University of St. Petersburg, earning his doctorate several years later in 1887. From 1881 to 1891 he took part in numerous expeditions to Siberia, the Caucasus, Persia, Japan, et al. In...
, 1903 - Schizothorax kumaonensisSchizothorax kumaonensisSchizothorax kumaonensis or Kumaon Snowtrout is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Menon, 1971 (Kumaon Snowtrout) - Schizothorax labiatusSchizothorax labiatusSchizothorax labiatus or Kunar Snowtrout is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(McClelland, 1842) (Kunar Snowtrout) - Schizothorax labrosusSchizothorax labrosusSchizothorax labrosus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Y. H. Wang, D. D. Zhuang & L. C. Gao, 1981 - Schizothorax lantsangensisSchizothorax lantsangensisSchizothorax lantsangensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
W. H. Tsao, 1964 - Schizothorax lepidothoraxSchizothorax lepidothoraxSchizothorax lepidothorax is a species of ray-finned fish in the Cyprinidae family.It is found only in China.-Source:* World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1996. . Downloaded on 19 July 2007....
J. X. Yang, 1991 - Schizothorax lissolabiatusSchizothorax lissolabiatusSchizothorax lissolabiatus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
W. H. Tsao, 1964 - Schizothorax longibarbusSchizothorax longibarbusSchizothorax longibarbus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(P. W. Fang, 1936) - Schizothorax macrophthalmusSchizothorax macrophthalmusSchizothorax macrophthalmus is a cyprinid fish species of the genus Schizothorax. This snowtrout was first collected in 1979 in the alpine fresh water Rara Lake located in Nepal's Rara National Park....
Terashima, 1984 (Nepalese Snowtrout) - Schizothorax macropogonSchizothorax macropogonSchizothorax macropogon is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Regan, 1905 - Schizothorax malacanthusSchizothorax malacanthusSchizothorax malacanthus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
S. Y. Huang, 1985 - Schizothorax meridionalisSchizothorax meridionalisSchizothorax meridionalis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
W. H. Tsao, 1964 - Schizothorax microcephalusSchizothorax microcephalusSchizothorax microcephalus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
F. DayFrancis DayFrancis Day CIE was Inspector-General of Fisheries in India and Burma and an ichthyologist.He was born on 2 March 1829 Maresfield, Sussex, UK third son of William and Ann Day. He became the medical officer in the Madras Presidency, East India Company services in 1852.Francis Day was created a...
, 1877 - Schizothorax microstomusSchizothorax microstomusSchizothorax microstomus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
S. Y. Hwang, 1982 - Schizothorax molesworthiSchizothorax molesworthiSchizothorax molesworthi is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(Chaudhuri, 1913) - Schizothorax myzostomusSchizothorax myzostomusSchizothorax myzostomus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
W. H. Tsao, 1964 - Schizothorax nasusSchizothorax nasusSchizothorax nasus or Dongu Snowtrout is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
HeckelJohann Jakob HeckelJohann Jakob Heckel was an Austrian taxidermist, zoologist, and ichthyologist from Mannheim.Though not a formally trained zoologist he worked his way up through the ranks to eventually become the director of the Fish Collection at the Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna...
, 1838 (Dongu Snowtrout) - Schizothorax nepalensisSchizothorax nepalensisSchizothorax nepalensis is a cyprinid fish species of the genus Schizothorax. The Nepalese snowtrout was first collected in 1979 in the alpine fresh water Rara Lake located in Nepal's Rara National Park....
Terashima, 1984 - Schizothorax ninglangensisSchizothorax ninglangensisSchizothorax ninglangensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Y. H. Wang, K. X. Zhang & D. D. Zhuang, 1981 - Schizothorax nudiventrisSchizothorax nudiventrisSchizothorax nudiventris is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
J. Yang, X. Y. Chen & J. X. Yang, 2009 - Schizothorax nukiangensisSchizothorax nukiangensisSchizothorax nukiangensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
W. H. Tsao, 1964 - Schizothorax oconnoriSchizothorax oconnoriSchizothorax oconnori is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Lloyd, 1908 - Schizothorax oligolepisSchizothorax oligolepisSchizothorax oligolepis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
S. Y. Huang, 1985 - Schizothorax parvusSchizothorax parvusSchizothorax parvus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
W. H. Tsao, 1964 - Schizothorax pelzamiSchizothorax pelzamiSchizothorax pelzami or Transcaspian Marinka is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
KesslerKarl Fedorovich KesslerKarl Fedorovich Kessler was a German-Russian zoologist and author of zoological taxa signed Kessler, who was mostly active in Kiev, Ukraine and conducted most of his studies of birds in Ukrainian regions of the Russian Empire - Kiev Governorate, Volyn Governorate, Kherson Governorate, Poltava...
, 1870 (Transcaspian Marinka) - Schizothorax plagiostomusSchizothorax plagiostomusSchizothorax plagiostomus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax. Schizothorax plagiostomus locally known as Khont has an elongated sub cylindrical body with short, blunt and slightly prognathous upper jaw. Ventral surface of Head and anterior part of body flattish, short,...
HeckelJohann Jakob HeckelJohann Jakob Heckel was an Austrian taxidermist, zoologist, and ichthyologist from Mannheim.Though not a formally trained zoologist he worked his way up through the ranks to eventually become the director of the Fish Collection at the Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna...
, 1838 (Asaila/Asela) - Schizothorax prenantiSchizothorax prenantiSchizothorax prenanti is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(T. L. Tchang, 1930) - Schizothorax progastusSchizothorax progastusSchizothorax progastus or Dinnawah Snowtrout is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(McClelland, 1839) (Dinnawah Snowtrout) - Schizothorax prophylax PietschmannViktor PietschmannViktor Pietschmann was an Austrian ichthyologist at the Vienna Museum of Natural History. He was the curator of the fish collection from 1919 to 1946. During his life, he made collecting to trips to the Barents Sea, Greenland, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Hawaii, Romania, and Poland. He described many...
, 1933 - Schizothorax pseudoaksaiensisSchizothorax pseudoaksaiensisSchizothorax pseudoaksaiensis or Ili Marinka is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Herzenstein, 1889- Schizothorax pseudoaksaiensis issykkuli L. S. Berg, 1907 (Issyk-kul marinka)
- Schizothorax pseudoaksaiensis pseudoaksaiensis Herzenstein, 1889 (Ili marinka)
- Schizothorax raraensisSchizothorax raraensisSchizothorax raraensis is a cyprinid fish species of the genus Schizothorax. The Rara snowtrout was first collected in 1979 in the alpine fresh water Rara Lake located in Nepal's Rara National Park....
Terashima, 1984 - Schizothorax richardsoniiSchizothorax richardsoniiSchizothorax richardsonii or Common Snowtrout is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(J. E. GrayJohn Edward GrayJohn Edward Gray, FRS was a British zoologist. He was the elder brother of George Robert Gray and son of the pharmacologist and botanist Samuel Frederick Gray ....
, 1832) (Common Snowtrout, "Asaila"/"Asela") - Schizothorax rotundimaxillarisSchizothorax rotundimaxillarisSchizothorax rotundimaxillaris is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Y. F. Wu & C. Z. Wu, 1992 - Schizothorax sinensisSchizothorax sinensisSchizothorax sinensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Herzenstein, 1889 - Schizothorax skarduensisSchizothorax skarduensisSchizothorax skarduensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Mirza & Awan, 1978 - Schizothorax waltoniSchizothorax waltoniSchizothorax waltoni is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
Regan, 1905 - Schizothorax wangchiachiiSchizothorax wangchiachiiSchizothorax wangchiachii is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(P. W. Fang, 1936) - Schizothorax yunnanensisSchizothorax yunnanensisSchizothorax yunnanensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax.- Subspecies :This species has three subspecies.* Schizothorax yunnanensis paoshanensis* Schizothorax yunnanensis weiningensis...
Norman, 1923- Schizothorax yunnanensis paoshanensisSchizothorax yunnanensis paoshanensisSchizothorax yunnanensis paoshanensis is a subspecies of Schizothorax yunnanensis....
W. H. Tsao, 1964 - Schizothorax yunnanensis weiningensisSchizothorax yunnanensis weiningensisSchizothorax yunnanensis weiningensis is a subspecies of Schizothorax yunnanensis....
Yi-Yu Chen, 1998 - Schizothorax yunnanensis yunnanensisSchizothorax yunnanensis yunnanensisSchizothorax yunnanensis yunnanensis is a subspecies of Schizothorax yunnanensis....
Norman, 1923
- Schizothorax yunnanensis paoshanensis
- Schizothorax zarudnyiSchizothorax zarudnyiSchizothorax zarudnyi is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schizothorax....
(NikolskiiAlexander Mikhailovich NikolskyAlexander Mikhailovich Nikolsky was a Russian zoologist born in Astrakhan.From 1877 to 1881 he studied at the University of St. Petersburg, earning his doctorate several years later in 1887. From 1881 to 1891 he took part in numerous expeditions to Siberia, the Caucasus, Persia, Japan, et al. In...
, 1897)