Neutronium
Encyclopedia
Neutronium is a proposed name for a substance composed purely of neutron
s. The word was coined by scientist Andreas von Antropoff in 1926 (before the discovery of the neutron
itself) for the conjectured "element of atomic number zero" that he placed at the head of the periodic table. However, the meaning of the term has changed over time, and from the last half of the 20th century onward it has been used legitimately to refer to extremely dense phases of matter
resembling the neutron-degenerate matter postulated to exist in the cores of neutron star
s. Science fiction
and popular literature frequently use the term "neutronium" to refer to a highly dense phase of matter composed primarily of neutron
s.
s (stars which are too massive to be supported by electron degeneracy pressure
and which collapse into a denser phase of matter). This term is very rarely used in scientific literature, for two reasons:
When neutron star core material is presumed to consist mostly of free neutrons, it is typically referred to as neutron-degenerate matter in scientific literature.
of atomic number
zero at the head of his new version of the periodic table
. It was subsequently placed in the middle of several spiral representations of the periodic system for classifying the chemical elements, such as those of Charles Janet
(1928), E. I. Emerson (1944), John D. Clark
(1950) and in Philip Stewart
's Chemical Galaxy
(2005).
Although the term is not used in the scientific literature either for a condensed form of matter, or as an element, there have been reports that, besides the free neutron, there may exist two bound forms of neutrons without protons. However, these reports have not been further substantiated. Further information can be found in the following articles:
If one accepts neutronium to be an element, the above mentioned neutron clusters would be the isotope
s of that element, if their existence can be confirmed. Also, if neutronium is accepted to be an element, it would not be a noble gas, for it would have no electrons, in fact, it would have no electron shells. All electron shells and their electrons have been squeezed out of the material by pressure. The material would, thus, like noble gasses be unreactive, but for different reasons. Neutronium would not fit anywhere in the periodic table.
Although not called "neutronium", the National Nuclear Data Center's Nuclear Wallet Cards lists as its first "isotope" an "element" with the symbol n and atomic number Z = 0 and mass number A = 1. This isotope is described as decaying to element H
with a half life of .
since at least the middle of the 20th century. It typically refers to an extremely dense, incredibly strong form of matter. While presumably inspired by the concept of neutron-degenerate matter in the cores of neutron star
s, the material used in fiction bears at most only a superficial resemblance, usually depicted as an extremely strong solid under Earth
-like conditions, or possessing exotic properties such as the ability to manipulate time and space. In contrast, all proposed forms of neutron star
core material are fluid
s and are extremely unstable at pressure
s lower than that found in stellar
cores.
Noteworthy appearances of neutronium in fiction include the following:
Neutron
The neutron is a subatomic hadron particle which has the symbol or , no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. With the exception of hydrogen, nuclei of atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number of...
s. The word was coined by scientist Andreas von Antropoff in 1926 (before the discovery of the neutron
Neutron
The neutron is a subatomic hadron particle which has the symbol or , no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. With the exception of hydrogen, nuclei of atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number of...
itself) for the conjectured "element of atomic number zero" that he placed at the head of the periodic table. However, the meaning of the term has changed over time, and from the last half of the 20th century onward it has been used legitimately to refer to extremely dense phases of matter
State of matter
States of matter are the distinct forms that different phases of matter take on. Solid, liquid and gas are the most common states of matter on Earth. However, much of the baryonic matter of the universe is in the form of hot plasma, both as rarefied interstellar medium and as dense...
resembling the neutron-degenerate matter postulated to exist in the cores of neutron star
Neutron star
A neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without electrical charge and with a slightly larger...
s. Science fiction
Science fiction
Science fiction is a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less plausible content such as future settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, aliens, and paranormal abilities...
and popular literature frequently use the term "neutronium" to refer to a highly dense phase of matter composed primarily of neutron
Neutron
The neutron is a subatomic hadron particle which has the symbol or , no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. With the exception of hydrogen, nuclei of atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number of...
s.
Neutronium and neutron stars
Neutronium is used in popular literature to refer to the material present in the cores of neutron starNeutron star
A neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without electrical charge and with a slightly larger...
s (stars which are too massive to be supported by electron degeneracy pressure
Electron degeneracy pressure
Electron degeneracy pressure is a particular manifestation of the more general phenomenon of quantum degeneracy pressure. The Pauli Exclusion Principle disallows two half integer spin particles from occupying the same quantum state at a given time. The resulting emergent repulsive force is...
and which collapse into a denser phase of matter). This term is very rarely used in scientific literature, for two reasons:
- There is no universally agreed-upon definition for the term "neutronium".
- There is considerable uncertainty over the composition of the material in the cores of neutron starNeutron starA neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without electrical charge and with a slightly larger...
s (it could be neutron-degenerate matter, strange matterStrange matterStrange matter is a particular form of quark matter, usually thought of as a "liquid" of up, down, and strange quarks. It is to be contrasted with nuclear matter, which is a liquid of neutrons and protons , and with non-strange quark matter, which is a quark liquid containing only up and down quarks...
, quark matter, or a variant or combination of the above).
When neutron star core material is presumed to consist mostly of free neutrons, it is typically referred to as neutron-degenerate matter in scientific literature.
Neutronium and the periodic table
The term "neutronium" was coined in 1926 by Professor Andreas von Antropoff for a conjectured form of matter made up of neutrons with no protons, which he placed as the chemical elementChemical element
A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus. Familiar examples of elements include carbon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, copper, gold, mercury, and lead.As of November 2011, 118 elements...
of atomic number
Atomic number
In chemistry and physics, the atomic number is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom and therefore identical to the charge number of the nucleus. It is conventionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element...
zero at the head of his new version of the periodic table
Periodic table
The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular display of the 118 known chemical elements organized by selected properties of their atomic structures. Elements are presented by increasing atomic number, the number of protons in an atom's atomic nucleus...
. It was subsequently placed in the middle of several spiral representations of the periodic system for classifying the chemical elements, such as those of Charles Janet
Charles Janet
Charles Janet was a French engineer, company director, inventor and biologist.-Life and work:Janet graduated from the Ecole des Mines and worked for some years in munitions. He then married the daughter of the owner of a manufacturing company and worked for it for the rest of his life, finding...
(1928), E. I. Emerson (1944), John D. Clark
John D. Clark
John Drury Clark, Ph.D. was a noted American rocket fuel developer, chemist, and science fiction writer and fan. He was instrumental in the revival of interest in Robert E. Howard's Conan stories and influenced the writing careers of L. Sprague de Camp, Fletcher Pratt, and other authors.- Life and...
(1950) and in Philip Stewart
Philip Stewart
Philip Stewart, , is a British writer and academic.-History:He decided at an early age that he did not want to choose between arts and sciences. He took a first degree in 1961 at the University of Oxford, England in Arabic, then, as a young graduate IN 1962, translated a novel by Naguib Mahfouz...
's Chemical Galaxy
Chemical Galaxy
Chemical Galaxy is a new representation by Philip Stewart of the periodic system of the elements, better known in tabular form as the periodic table, based on the cyclical nature of characteristics of the chemical elements...
(2005).
Although the term is not used in the scientific literature either for a condensed form of matter, or as an element, there have been reports that, besides the free neutron, there may exist two bound forms of neutrons without protons. However, these reports have not been further substantiated. Further information can be found in the following articles:
- Mononeutron: Isolated neutrons undergo beta decayBeta decayIn nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle is emitted from an atom. There are two types of beta decay: beta minus and beta plus. In the case of beta decay that produces an electron emission, it is referred to as beta minus , while in the case of a...
with a mean lifetime of approximately 15 minuteMinuteA minute is a unit of measurement of time or of angle. The minute is a unit of time equal to 1/60th of an hour or 60 seconds. In the UTC time scale, a minute on rare occasions has 59 or 61 seconds; see leap second. The minute is not an SI unit; however, it is accepted for use with SI units...
s (half-life of approximately 10 minutes), becoming protonProtonThe proton is a subatomic particle with the symbol or and a positive electric charge of 1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons. The number of protons in each atom is its atomic number....
s (the nucleusAtomic nucleusThe nucleus is the very dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom. It was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's interpretation of the famous 1909 Rutherford experiment performed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Rutherford. The...
of hydrogenHydrogenHydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
), electronElectronThe electron is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton...
s and antineutrinos. - DineutronDineutronA dineutron is a hypothetical particle consisting of two neutrons that was suggested to have a transitory existence in nuclear reactions produced by helions that result in the formation of a proton and a nucleus having the same atomic number as the target nucleus but a mass number two units greater...
: The dineutron, containing two neutrons, is not a bound particle, but has been proposed as an extremely short-lived state produced by nuclear reactions involving tritiumTritiumTritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. The nucleus of tritium contains one proton and two neutrons, whereas the nucleus of protium contains one proton and no neutrons...
. It was suggested to have a transitory existence in nuclear reactionNuclear reactionIn nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, a nuclear reaction is semantically considered to be the process in which two nuclei, or else a nucleus of an atom and a subatomic particle from outside the atom, collide to produce products different from the initial particles...
s produced by helionHelion (chemistry)A helion is a short name for the naked nucleus of helium, a doubly positively charged helium ion. In practice, helion refers to the stable helium-3 nucleus, in opposition to the other stable nucleus helium-4, which is usually referred to as an alpha particle...
s that result in the formation of a protonProtonThe proton is a subatomic particle with the symbol or and a positive electric charge of 1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons. The number of protons in each atom is its atomic number....
and a nucleusAtomic nucleusThe nucleus is the very dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom. It was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's interpretation of the famous 1909 Rutherford experiment performed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Rutherford. The...
having the same atomic numberAtomic numberIn chemistry and physics, the atomic number is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom and therefore identical to the charge number of the nucleus. It is conventionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element...
as the target nucleus but a mass numberAtomic massThe atomic mass is the mass of a specific isotope, most often expressed in unified atomic mass units. The atomic mass is the total mass of protons, neutrons and electrons in a single atom....
two units greater. The dineutron hypothesis has been used in nuclear reactions with exotic nuclei for a long time. Several applications of the dineutron in nuclear reactions can be found in review papers. Its existence has been proven to be relevant for nuclear structure of exotic nuclei. A system made up of only two neutrons is not bound, though the attraction between them is very nearly enough to make them so. This has some consequences on nucleosynthesisNucleosynthesisNucleosynthesis is the process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons . It is thought that the primordial nucleons themselves were formed from the quark–gluon plasma from the Big Bang as it cooled below two trillion degrees...
and the abundance of the chemical elementsAbundance of the chemical elementsThe abundance of a chemical element measures how relatively common the element is, or how much of the element is present in a given environment by comparison to all other elements...
. - Trineutron: A trineutron state consisting of three bound neutrons has not been detected, and is not expected to exist even for a short time.
- TetraneutronTetraneutronA tetraneutron is a hypothesised stable cluster of four neutrons. This cluster of particles is not supported by current models of nuclear forces...
: A tetraneutron is a hypothetical particle consisting of four bound neutrons. Reports of its existence have not been replicated. If confirmed, it would require revision of current nuclear models. - Pentaneutron: Calculations indicate that the hypothetical pentaneutron state, consisting of a cluster of five neutrons, would not be bound.
- And so on, through the numbers, up to icosaneutron, with 20 neutrons.
If one accepts neutronium to be an element, the above mentioned neutron clusters would be the isotope
Isotope
Isotopes are variants of atoms of a particular chemical element, which have differing numbers of neutrons. Atoms of a particular element by definition must contain the same number of protons but may have a distinct number of neutrons which differs from atom to atom, without changing the designation...
s of that element, if their existence can be confirmed. Also, if neutronium is accepted to be an element, it would not be a noble gas, for it would have no electrons, in fact, it would have no electron shells. All electron shells and their electrons have been squeezed out of the material by pressure. The material would, thus, like noble gasses be unreactive, but for different reasons. Neutronium would not fit anywhere in the periodic table.
Although not called "neutronium", the National Nuclear Data Center's Nuclear Wallet Cards lists as its first "isotope" an "element" with the symbol n and atomic number Z = 0 and mass number A = 1. This isotope is described as decaying to element H
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
with a half life of .
Neutronium in fiction
The term neutronium has been popular in science fictionScience fiction
Science fiction is a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less plausible content such as future settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, aliens, and paranormal abilities...
since at least the middle of the 20th century. It typically refers to an extremely dense, incredibly strong form of matter. While presumably inspired by the concept of neutron-degenerate matter in the cores of neutron star
Neutron star
A neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without electrical charge and with a slightly larger...
s, the material used in fiction bears at most only a superficial resemblance, usually depicted as an extremely strong solid under Earth
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets...
-like conditions, or possessing exotic properties such as the ability to manipulate time and space. In contrast, all proposed forms of neutron star
Neutron star
A neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without electrical charge and with a slightly larger...
core material are fluid
Fluid
In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms under an applied shear stress. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids....
s and are extremely unstable at pressure
Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure.- Definition :...
s lower than that found in stellar
Star
A star is a massive, luminous sphere of plasma held together by gravity. At the end of its lifetime, a star can also contain a proportion of degenerate matter. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the energy on Earth...
cores.
Noteworthy appearances of neutronium in fiction include the following:
- In Hal ClementHal ClementHarry Clement Stubbs better known by the pen name Hal Clement, was an American science fiction writer and a leader of the hard science fiction subgenre.-Biography:...
's short story Proof (1942), neutronium is the only form of solid matter known to Solarians, the inhabitants of the Sun's interior. - In Vladimir Savchenko's Black Stars (1960), neutronium is mechanically and thermally indestructible substance. It is also used to make antimatter, which leads to an annihilation accident.
- In the commentary for the 2011 film Thor, director Kenneth BranaghKenneth BranaghKenneth Charles Branagh is an actor and film director from Northern Ireland. He is best known for directing and starring in several film adaptations of William Shakespeare's plays including Henry V , Much Ado About Nothing , Hamlet Kenneth Charles Branagh is an actor and film director from...
hypothesized that Thor's Hammer is composed of neutronium, since it is explicitly stated in the film that the hammer was forged from a dying star. This would account for some of the hammer's properties such as its extreme weight. - In Doctor WhoDoctor WhoDoctor Who is a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC. The programme depicts the adventures of a time-travelling humanoid alien known as the Doctor who explores the universe in a sentient time machine called the TARDIS that flies through time and space, whose exterior...
(1963), neutronium is a substance which can shield spaces from time-shear when used as shielding in time-vessels. - In Larry NivenLarry NivenLaurence van Cott Niven / ˈlæri ˈnɪvən/ is an American science fiction author. His best-known work is Ringworld , which received Hugo, Locus, Ditmar, and Nebula awards. His work is primarily hard science fiction, using big science concepts and theoretical physics...
's Known SpaceKnown SpaceKnown Space is the fictional setting of some dozen science fiction novels and several collections of short stories written by author Larry Niven. It has also in part been used as a shared universe in the Man-Kzin Wars spin-off anthologies sub-series....
fictional universeFictional universeA fictional universe is a self-consistent fictional setting with elements that differ from the real world. It may also be called an imagined, constructed or fictional realm ....
(1964), neutronium is actual neutron starNeutron starA neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without electrical charge and with a slightly larger...
core material. Niven does not make assumptions about its strength, but imagines that small blobs of it could be artificially created under pressure, and their instability overcome by containing them in slaver stasis fields. - In the Star TrekStar TrekStar Trek is an American science fiction entertainment franchise created by Gene Roddenberry. The core of Star Trek is its six television series: The Original Series, The Animated Series, The Next Generation, Deep Space Nine, Voyager, and Enterprise...
universe, neutronium is an extremely hard and durable substance, often used as armor, which conventional weapons cannot penetrate or even dent. - In the Star WarsStar WarsStar Wars is an American epic space opera film series created by George Lucas. The first film in the series was originally released on May 25, 1977, under the title Star Wars, by 20th Century Fox, and became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon, followed by two sequels, released at three-year...
expanded universe, neutronium is a metal used to make the Durasteel alloy. - In the computer games Master of OrionMaster of OrionMaster of Orion is a turn-based, 4X science fiction computer strategy game released in 1993 by MicroProse on the MS-DOS and Mac OS operating systems. The purpose of the game is to lead one of ten races to dominate the galaxy through a combination of diplomacy and conquest while developing...
(1993), Master of Orion 2 (1996), Master of Orion 3 (2003), and Sid Meier's Alpha CentauriSid Meier's Alpha CentauriSid Meier's Alpha Centauri is the critically acclaimed science fiction 4X turn-based strategy video game sequel to the Civilization series. Sid Meier, designer of Civilization, and Brian Reynolds, designer of Civilization II, developed Alpha Centauri after they left MicroProse to join the newly...
(1999), neutronium is one of the strongest armor types. MoO1 - strongest; MoO2 & SMAC - 3rd strongest. MoO1 and MoO2 also feature "neutronium bombs", which are extremely powerful planetary bombardment weapons which causes damage due to gravitic effects. - In Peter F. HamiltonPeter F. HamiltonPeter F. Hamilton is a British author. He is best known for writing space opera. As of the publication of his tenth novel in 2004, his works had sold over two million copies worldwide.- Biography :...
's novel The Neutronium AlchemistThe Neutronium AlchemistThe Neutronium Alchemist is a science fiction novel by Peter F. Hamilton and is the second book in The Night's Dawn Trilogy. It follows on from The Reality Dysfunction and precedes The Naked God. It was published in the United Kingdom by Macmillan Publishers on 20 October 1997...
(1997), neutronium is created by the "aggressive" setting of a superweaponSuperweaponA superweapon is an extremely powerful weapon by the standards of its time and its scale. Examples include the Tsar Bomba , various superguns and other various weapons employed to give a decisive advantage over opposing countries or forces. The given advantage is usually based on intimidation and...
. - In the StargateStargateStargate is a adventure military science fiction franchise, initially conceived by Roland Emmerich and Dean Devlin. The first film in the franchise was simply titled Stargate. It was originally released on October 28, 1994, by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Carolco, and became a hit, grossing nearly...
universe, neutronium is a substance which is the basis of the technology of the advanced AsgardAsgard (Stargate)The Asgard are a fictional highly advanced race in the science fiction series Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis. They are first mentioned in the episode , and first seen in . In the series, the Asgard gave rise to Norse mythology on Earth, as well as accounts of the Roswell "Greys"...
race, as well as a primary component of human-form Replicators; and apparently occurs naturally as a mineral in the crusts on some earthlike planets. - In Greg BearGreg BearGregory Dale Bear is an American science fiction and mainstream author. His work has covered themes of galactic conflict , artificial universes , consciousness and cultural practices , and accelerated evolution...
's The Forge of GodThe Forge of GodThe Forge of God is a 1987 science fiction novel by American writer Greg Bear. Earth faces destruction when an inscrutable and overwhelming alien form of life attacks....
(1987), alien aggressors inject two high-mass weapons made of neutronium and antineutronium into the Earth which orbit the Earth's core until they meet and annihilate, destroying the planet. - In Howard TaylerHoward TaylerHoward V. Tayler is the award-winning creator of the hugely successful webcomic Schlock Mercenary. He worked as a volunteer missionary for the LDS Church, then graduated from Brigham Young University...
's ongoing web-comic "Schlock MercenarySchlock MercenarySchlock Mercenary is a comedic webcomic written and drawn by Howard Tayler. It follows the tribulations of a star-travelling mercenary company in a satiric, mildly dystopian 31st-century space opera setting...
" (June 12, 2000 – Present) neutronium-fueled reactors (referred to as "Annie-plants", short for neutronium gravitic-annihilation power plant) are used to power everything including energy pistols, powered armor suits, whole worlds, and massive warships. The neutronium in these "evaporates" violently if the annie-plant is breached, but not violently enough to suggest any conversion to energy. It is stated that extremely large warships can use gravitic weaponry to literally crush smaller foes into neutronium, which they may then choose to use as fuel.