Kulung language
Encyclopedia
The Kulung are the people of Rai
and Kirant
descent, inhabiting Nepal
and parts of northeastern India
. Their language of the same name is closely related to the fellow Kiranti languages Bantawa
and Puma
. Alternate names for the language include Khulunge Rai, Kulu Ring, Khulung and Kholung.
. The ethno-linguistic region inhabited by the Kulungs is called the "Mahakulung" (Greater Kulung) is located in the Sagarmatha Zone
. It specifically refers to the Hongu valley, comprising Gudel
, Chheskam
, Bung
and Sotang
, as well as villages in the Sankhuwasawa District
and the valleys of the Hongu
, Sangkhuwa
and Siswa
rivers.
marriage and are protective in their language use. Up to 50% of the population can understand the Nepali language
at a basic level. Only Kulung people who live on the border with other language groups speak other languages. The Kulung people are primarily engaged in agriculture, cultivating millet
and maize
, as well as being hunters and fishermen. They practise traditional religion as well as Hinduism
and Buddhism
. Unlike most Hindus and Buddhists in Nepal, the Kulung bury their dead instead of cremating.
(Sotaring, Sottaring), Mahakulung, Tamachhang, Pidisoi, Chhapkoa, Pelmung, Namlung and Khambu. Kulung distinguishes between eight vowels and 11 diphthong
s. There are three series of stops: dorso-velar, dental and labial
, each serie having an unaspirated voiceless, aspirated voiceless and an unaspirated voiced variant. There are three voiced nasals, four approximants, one vibrant
, one fricative and three affricates.
In Kulung, a distinction can be made between the categories noun
s, adjective
s and personal pronoun
s. The 13 cases
found in Kulung are absolutive, ergative
, instrumental, genitive, vocative, and four different locatives (depending on deictic categories like 'up', 'down', etc.), comitative, ablative, elative
and mediative. Personal pronouns are distinguished for three persons, three numbers
, and in the non-singular first person between inclusive and exclusive. Possessive pronouns appear as prefixes that may appear before the noun. Adjectives form a separate category in Kulung and are formed by the addition of an affix
to a verb stem.
The Kulung verb is characterised by a system of complex pronominal
isation, in which paradigmatic stem alternation is found. Personal endings consist of morpheme
s expressing notion like tense
, agent
, patient
, number
and exclusivity. Depending on the number of verbal stems and their position in the verbal paradigm, every verb in Kulung belongs to a certain conjugation
type. Complete conjugations of verbs belonging to the different conjugation types are presented in the second appendix. Like in other Kiranti languages, compound verbs are found in Kulung. These compound verbs consist of a verb stem and an auxiliary that adds semantic notions to the main verb. Other verbal constructions found in Kulung are a gerund
, imperative
, supine
and an infinitive
.
Rai (ethnic group)
The Rai are one of Nepal's most ancient indigenous ethnolinguistic groups. They were Raya meaning king. Once someone was recognized as a ruler then Hindus awarded the title Raja, Rai, Raya, Malla etc. When the king Pritivi Narayan Shah couldn't defeat Kirant king , he somehow took them in...
and Kirant
Kirant
Kirat or Kirati are indigenous ethnic groups of the Himalayas extending eastward from Nepal into India, Burma and beyond. They migrated to their present locations via Assam, Burma, Tibet and Yunnan in ancient times...
descent, inhabiting Nepal
Nepal
Nepal , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked sovereign state located in South Asia. It is located in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India...
and parts of northeastern India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
. Their language of the same name is closely related to the fellow Kiranti languages Bantawa
Bantawa language
The Bantawa language is an endangered language group. It is a Tibeto-Burman language, Eastern Kiranti languages family, spoken in the eastern Himalayan hills of eastern Nepal by Rai ethnic groups. Bantawa speaking Population estimates vary between 20,000-60,000, though 35,000 speakers may be a...
and Puma
Puma language
Puma is a Kiranti language spoken by about 4,310 people in Diplung, Mauwabote, Devisthan, Pauwasera and Chisapani Village Development Committees of Khotang district and in some areas of Udayapur district, Nepal.The Himalayan Languages Project has produced the first grammatical sketch of Puma...
. Alternate names for the language include Khulunge Rai, Kulu Ring, Khulung and Kholung.
Origin
The Kulung trace their lineage to descent from the Kiranti ruler Khambu. The early Kulung people migrated from the Tarai – the lowlands of Nepal and settled in the Hongu valleyHongu River
The Hongu River is a major river and valley in the Sankhuwasawa District. It is a tributary of the Hinku River, which subsequently flows into the Dudh Kosi....
. The ethno-linguistic region inhabited by the Kulungs is called the "Mahakulung" (Greater Kulung) is located in the Sagarmatha Zone
Sagarmatha Zone
Sagarmāthā zone in the north, hill districts in the center, and valley districts of the Terai in the south. The borders of this zone are China to the north, India to the south, the Koshi Zone to the east and the Janakpur Zone to the west....
. It specifically refers to the Hongu valley, comprising Gudel
Gudel
Gudel is a village development committee in Solukhumbu District in the Sagarmatha Zone of north-eastern Nepal. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 3489 people living in 712 individual households.-External links:*...
, Chheskam
Chheskam
Chheskam is a village development committee in Solukhumbu District in the Sagarmatha Zone of north-eastern Nepal. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 2824 people living in 641 individual households.It is located in the Hongu valley....
, Bung
Bung
A bung is truncated cylindrical or conical closure to seal a container, such as a bottle, tube or barrel. Unlike a lid which encloses a container from the outside without displacing the inner volume, a bung is partially inserted inside the container to act as a seal...
and Sotang
Sotang
Sotang is a village in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.Sotang [सोताङ]: Sotang is one of the villages scattered in the district of Solukhumbu, Sagarmatha zone in Nepal. In other word, it can be said "Sotang" is a village in Mount Everest region. The word "Sotang" is derived from "Sotto". Sotto...
, as well as villages in the Sankhuwasawa District
Sankhuwasawa District
The Sankhuwasawa District is located in the valleys of the Arun, Hongu, Sangkhuwa and Siswa rivers in eastern Nepal....
and the valleys of the Hongu
Hongu River
The Hongu River is a major river and valley in the Sankhuwasawa District. It is a tributary of the Hinku River, which subsequently flows into the Dudh Kosi....
, Sangkhuwa
Sangkhuwa River
The Sangkhuwa is a river and valley in the Sankhuwasawa District. It is a tributary of the Arun....
and Siswa
Siswa River
The Siswa is a river and valley in the Sankhuwasawa District. It is a tributary of the Arun....
rivers.
People
According to the 2001 census in Nepal, the Kulung-speaking peoples number 18,686; other estimates state about 15,000 speakers. There are tendencies of small communities considering themselves Kulung, but not necessarily belonging to the same origin; these are possibly absorbed into the wider Kulung peoples. The Kulung practise exogamous clanClan
A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clan members may be organized around a founding member or apical ancestor. The kinship-based bonds may be symbolical, whereby the clan shares a "stipulated" common ancestor that is a...
marriage and are protective in their language use. Up to 50% of the population can understand the Nepali language
Nepali language
Nepali or Nepalese is a language in the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family.It is the official language and de facto lingua franca of Nepal and is also spoken in Bhutan, parts of India and parts of Myanmar...
at a basic level. Only Kulung people who live on the border with other language groups speak other languages. The Kulung people are primarily engaged in agriculture, cultivating millet
Millet
The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult...
and maize
Maize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
, as well as being hunters and fishermen. They practise traditional religion as well as Hinduism
Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
and Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
. Unlike most Hindus and Buddhists in Nepal, the Kulung bury their dead instead of cremating.
Language and grammar
Dialects of the Kulung language include SotangSotang
Sotang is a village in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.Sotang [सोताङ]: Sotang is one of the villages scattered in the district of Solukhumbu, Sagarmatha zone in Nepal. In other word, it can be said "Sotang" is a village in Mount Everest region. The word "Sotang" is derived from "Sotto". Sotto...
(Sotaring, Sottaring), Mahakulung, Tamachhang, Pidisoi, Chhapkoa, Pelmung, Namlung and Khambu. Kulung distinguishes between eight vowels and 11 diphthong
Diphthong
A diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...
s. There are three series of stops: dorso-velar, dental and labial
Labial consonant
Labial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. This precludes linguolabials, in which the tip of the tongue reaches for the posterior side of the upper lip and which are considered coronals...
, each serie having an unaspirated voiceless, aspirated voiceless and an unaspirated voiced variant. There are three voiced nasals, four approximants, one vibrant
Vibrant
In phonetics, a vibrant is a rhotic consonant which is either a tap or a trill. The term is sometimes used when it is not clear whether the r-sound in a language is a tap or a trill. Spanish has two vibrants, and , while English outside Scotland and Ireland has none....
, one fricative and three affricates.
In Kulung, a distinction can be made between the categories noun
Noun
In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition .Lexical categories are defined in terms of how their members combine with other kinds of...
s, adjective
Adjective
In grammar, an adjective is a 'describing' word; the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified....
s and personal pronoun
Personal pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns used as substitutes for proper or common nouns. All known languages contain personal pronouns.- English personal pronouns :English in common use today has seven personal pronouns:*first-person singular...
s. The 13 cases
Grammatical case
In grammar, the case of a noun or pronoun is an inflectional form that indicates its grammatical function in a phrase, clause, or sentence. For example, a pronoun may play the role of subject , of direct object , or of possessor...
found in Kulung are absolutive, ergative
Ergative
The term ergative is used in grammar in three different meanings:* Ergative case* Ergative-absolutive language* Ergative verb...
, instrumental, genitive, vocative, and four different locatives (depending on deictic categories like 'up', 'down', etc.), comitative, ablative, elative
Elative case
See Elative for disambiguation.Elative is a locative case with the basic meaning "out of"....
and mediative. Personal pronouns are distinguished for three persons, three numbers
Grammatical number
In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions ....
, and in the non-singular first person between inclusive and exclusive. Possessive pronouns appear as prefixes that may appear before the noun. Adjectives form a separate category in Kulung and are formed by the addition of an affix
Affix
An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed. They are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes...
to a verb stem.
The Kulung verb is characterised by a system of complex pronominal
Pronominal
Pronominal can be used either to describe something related to a pronoun or to mean a phrase that acts as a pronoun in the context of nominal. An example of the second case is, "I want that kind". The phrase "that kind" stands in for a noun phrase, or nominal, that can be deduced from context, and...
isation, in which paradigmatic stem alternation is found. Personal endings consist of morpheme
Morpheme
In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest semantically meaningful unit in a language. The field of study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word,...
s expressing notion like tense
Grammatical tense
A tense is a grammatical category that locates a situation in time, to indicate when the situation takes place.Bernard Comrie, Aspect, 1976:6:...
, agent
Agent (grammar)
In linguistics, a grammatical agent is the cause or initiator of an event. Agent is the name of the thematic role...
, patient
Patient (grammar)
In linguistics, a grammatical patient, also called the target or undergoer, is the participant of a situation upon whom an action is carried out. A patient as differentiated from a theme must undergo a change in state. A theme is denoted by a stative verb, where a patient is denoted by a dynamic...
, number
Number
A number is a mathematical object used to count and measure. In mathematics, the definition of number has been extended over the years to include such numbers as zero, negative numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and complex numbers....
and exclusivity. Depending on the number of verbal stems and their position in the verbal paradigm, every verb in Kulung belongs to a certain conjugation
Grammatical conjugation
In linguistics, conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a verb from its principal parts by inflection . Conjugation may be affected by person, number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, voice, or other grammatical categories...
type. Complete conjugations of verbs belonging to the different conjugation types are presented in the second appendix. Like in other Kiranti languages, compound verbs are found in Kulung. These compound verbs consist of a verb stem and an auxiliary that adds semantic notions to the main verb. Other verbal constructions found in Kulung are a gerund
Gerund
In linguistics* As applied to English, it refers to the usage of a verb as a noun ....
, imperative
Imperative
Imperative can mean:*Imperative mood, a grammatical mood expressing commands, direct requests, and prohibitions * A morphological item expressing commands, direct requests, and prohibitions...
, supine
Supine
In grammar a supine is a form of verbal noun used in some languages.-In Latin:In Latin there are two supines, I and II . They are originally the accusative and dative or ablative forms of a verbal noun in the fourth declension, respectively. The first supine ends in -um. It has two uses. The first...
and an infinitive
Infinitive
In grammar, infinitive is the name for certain verb forms that exist in many languages. In the usual description of English, the infinitive of a verb is its basic form with or without the particle to: therefore, do and to do, be and to be, and so on are infinitives...
.