Branding national myths and symbols
Encyclopedia
Branding national myths and symbols, or BNMS, is a field of research focusing on brand
ing and marketing
of a nation's myths
and symbols. The research blends the theories of marketing, cultural communications, sociology
, public relations, and semiotics
. The awareness of a nation’s (or a collective group’s) internal myths and symbols may result in raising cultural relations between nations, according to this theory. The use dates from before the 1990, and field of study dates from about 2000, but was not given this moniker by a scholar until 2009.
The principles of BNMS are related to, but are different from Nation branding
. The main difference between two principles is that nation branding is primarily concerned with raising the global image of a nation for better economic return, while BNMS is concerned with the revealing and demonstrating the meanings behind a nation’s internal myths and symbols. In other words, nation branding is the selling or promotion of the external identity of a nation, while BNMS is the revealing of their internal identity, either for its own citizens to believe in, or to achieve better global relations between nations. According to the theory, each national myth and symbol has its own hidden meanings that may reinforce these misunderstanding between nations.
Examples of BNMS include changing the symbols on currency, a national anthem (see, e.g., National Anthem Project
by the United States
), and advertising in political campaigns.
about a nation's past. Such myths often serve as an important national symbol and affirm a set of national values. A national myth may sometimes take the form of a national epic
, part of the nation's civil religion
, a legend or fictionalized narrative, which has been elevated to serious mythological
, symbolical and esteemed level so as to be true to the nation. It might simply over-dramatize true incidents, omit important historical details, or add details for which there is no evidence; or it might simply be a fictional story that no one takes to be true literally, but contains a symbolic meaning for the nation.
The national folklore of many nations includes a founding myth
, which may involve a struggle against colonialism
or a war of independence. National myths serve many social and political purposes, such as state-sponsored propaganda
, or of inspiring civic virtue and self-sacrifice.
In some cases, the meaning of the national myth may become disputed among different parts of the population, such as majority and minority groups, which makes branding and advertising of the national myth necessary.
WIPO has conducted a number of symposia on the protection of folklore
, i.e., "traditional cultural expressions", with the goal of preventing their "misappropriation" by branding, patenting, tradmarking, or copyright by other persons.
note. Many nations have put their national ideas on their money "via branding national myths and symbols." The image of the crowning Charlemagne
is on a Euro note, because he is "accepted as the Father of Europe and thereby of the EU, with buildings and rooms named after him." The accepted "symbol for EU culture ... symbolises a Doric column ..." but does not necessarily represent Europe’s other cultures (Norse, etc.). Ultimately, Europe is based on the myth of the demi-god Europa
and many of its symbols are based on ancient Greek art forms. If Turkey joined the EU, the current images could be a source of conflict:
Another example from 2011 is that of Japan
's self-branding of its scientific expertise
, which fell apart after the earthquake and tsunami
that March, followed by the nuclear accidents. In the New York Times, Mitsuyoshi Numano wrote, "It even begins to appear that Japan’s vaunted scientific and technical prowess has taken on the character of a kind of myth, and that myth has deluded the nation’s politicians and business leaders."
José Filipe Torres
, chief executive of Bloom Consulting, a Madrid
-based branding firm whose clients include Spain
, was quoted by Forbes
cautioning that, "Good brand positing doesn't always mean more tourism, economic development and foreign investment."
In a 2003 article, Rose wrote that that national myths and symbols reinforce and create a "community and binding [its citizens]. These myths are not judged on their veracity but rather [on] their metaphorical and symbolic meaning." Rose maintained that the messages within these "created" myths are disseminated and ultimately maintained through its "civil society from its institutions, public policies and government". His prototypical
study was on the Canadian
government's creation of national myths in the 1980s and 1990s. Rose pointed out what was unique (in the 1980s) several major points:
Branding National Myths and Symbols was first coined in 2009 by Turkish-Australian scholar Hatice Sitki, who proposed in Myths, Symbols and Branding: Türkish National Identity and the EU, that these long-existing myths keep us from truly understanding and working with the "other
". Sitki proposes that cultural misunderstanding will continue between nations until they understand one another’s cultural myths and symbols. Sitki explains in the Cyclical Formula "Us/Other+Other", how Türkey
and the European Union
can benefit by accepting that they have, and continue, to play a "triple role" to one another.
BNMS argues that collective groups such as the EU do not need to be "branded" in order to improve their economic value. Rather, they need to be branded to achieve their cultural goal of moving from a "poly-cultural
" society to becoming a "multicultural
" society. One way for this to be achieved is for nations to realise and work with the hidden meanings of their myths and symbols. Vijay Prashad proposes that the concept of polyculturalism is a way to combat anti-racism
. Prashad defines poly cultures as a "provisional concept grounded in antiracism, rather than in diversity..." Roger Hewitt takes a different approach to how peoples with different languages can understand each other. Hewitt argues that the concept of polyculturalism is "not intrinsically equal."
The "national myths" used in Masterpiece Theatre
lead to "strengthen[ing] imperial attitudes", according to a 2009 book about the spate of Victorian British novels made in films from the 1980s through the 21st Century, and sources it cited.
Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck argues that the "invented tradition ... of Kwanzaa
" was equivalent to the American Indian
challenge to "the National myth of inclusion of Thanksgiving
...."
Brand
The American Marketing Association defines a brand as a "Name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies one seller's good or service as distinct from those of other sellers."...
ing and marketing
Marketing
Marketing is the process used to determine what products or services may be of interest to customers, and the strategy to use in sales, communications and business development. It generates the strategy that underlies sales techniques, business communication, and business developments...
of a nation's myths
Mythology
The term mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths. As examples, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece...
and symbols. The research blends the theories of marketing, cultural communications, sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
, public relations, and semiotics
Semiotics
Semiotics, also called semiotic studies or semiology, is the study of signs and sign processes , indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication...
. The awareness of a nation’s (or a collective group’s) internal myths and symbols may result in raising cultural relations between nations, according to this theory. The use dates from before the 1990, and field of study dates from about 2000, but was not given this moniker by a scholar until 2009.
The principles of BNMS are related to, but are different from Nation branding
Nation branding
Nation branding is a field of theory and practice which aims to measure, build and manage the reputation of countries . Some approaches applied, such as an increasing importance on the symbolic value of products, have led countries to emphasise their distinctive characteristics...
. The main difference between two principles is that nation branding is primarily concerned with raising the global image of a nation for better economic return, while BNMS is concerned with the revealing and demonstrating the meanings behind a nation’s internal myths and symbols. In other words, nation branding is the selling or promotion of the external identity of a nation, while BNMS is the revealing of their internal identity, either for its own citizens to believe in, or to achieve better global relations between nations. According to the theory, each national myth and symbol has its own hidden meanings that may reinforce these misunderstanding between nations.
Examples of BNMS include changing the symbols on currency, a national anthem (see, e.g., National Anthem Project
National Anthem Project
The National Anthem Project was a public awareness campaign launched in 2005 as a major initiative of MENC: The National Association for Music Education...
by the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
), and advertising in political campaigns.
Core concepts
A national myth is an inspiring narrative or anecdoteAnecdote
An anecdote is a short and amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person. It may be as brief as the setting and provocation of a bon mot. An anecdote is always presented as based on a real incident involving actual persons, whether famous or not, usually in an identifiable place...
about a nation's past. Such myths often serve as an important national symbol and affirm a set of national values. A national myth may sometimes take the form of a national epic
National epic
A national epic is an epic poem or a literary work of epic scope which seeks or is believed to capture and express the essence or spirit of a particular nation; not necessarily a nation-state, but at least an ethnic or linguistic group with aspirations to independence or autonomy...
, part of the nation's civil religion
Civil religion
The intended meaning of the term civil religion often varies according to whether one is a sociologist of religion or a professional political commentator...
, a legend or fictionalized narrative, which has been elevated to serious mythological
Mythology
The term mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths. As examples, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece...
, symbolical and esteemed level so as to be true to the nation. It might simply over-dramatize true incidents, omit important historical details, or add details for which there is no evidence; or it might simply be a fictional story that no one takes to be true literally, but contains a symbolic meaning for the nation.
The national folklore of many nations includes a founding myth
Founding myth
A national myth is an inspiring narrative or anecdote about a nation's past. Such myths often serve as an important national symbol and affirm a set of national values. A national myth may sometimes take the form of a national epic...
, which may involve a struggle against colonialism
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
or a war of independence. National myths serve many social and political purposes, such as state-sponsored propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
, or of inspiring civic virtue and self-sacrifice.
In some cases, the meaning of the national myth may become disputed among different parts of the population, such as majority and minority groups, which makes branding and advertising of the national myth necessary.
WIPO has conducted a number of symposia on the protection of folklore
Folklore
Folklore consists of legends, music, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, fairy tales and customs that are the traditions of a culture, subculture, or group. It is also the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared. The study of folklore is sometimes called...
, i.e., "traditional cultural expressions", with the goal of preventing their "misappropriation" by branding, patenting, tradmarking, or copyright by other persons.
Recent examples
A recent, clear example as of 2011 is the use of "Greco-Roman symbols merged into Christianity" on the EuroEuro
The euro is the official currency of the eurozone: 17 of the 27 member states of the European Union. It is also the currency used by the Institutions of the European Union. The eurozone consists of Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,...
note. Many nations have put their national ideas on their money "via branding national myths and symbols." The image of the crowning Charlemagne
Charlemagne
Charlemagne was King of the Franks from 768 and Emperor of the Romans from 800 to his death in 814. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800...
is on a Euro note, because he is "accepted as the Father of Europe and thereby of the EU, with buildings and rooms named after him." The accepted "symbol for EU culture ... symbolises a Doric column ..." but does not necessarily represent Europe’s other cultures (Norse, etc.). Ultimately, Europe is based on the myth of the demi-god Europa
Europa (mythology)
In Greek mythology Europa was a Phoenician woman of high lineage, from whom the name of the continent Europe has ultimately been taken. The name Europa occurs in Hesiod's long list of daughters of primordial Oceanus and Tethys...
and many of its symbols are based on ancient Greek art forms. If Turkey joined the EU, the current images could be a source of conflict:
Another example from 2011 is that of Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
's self-branding of its scientific expertise
Science and technology in Japan
Presently, science and technology in Japan is mostly focused and prominent in consumer electronics, robotics and the automotive industry.- Electronics :...
, which fell apart after the earthquake and tsunami
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
The 2011 earthquake off the Pacific coast of Tohoku, also known as the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, or the Great East Japan Earthquake, was a magnitude 9.0 undersea megathrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST on Friday, 11 March 2011, with the epicenter approximately east...
that March, followed by the nuclear accidents. In the New York Times, Mitsuyoshi Numano wrote, "It even begins to appear that Japan’s vaunted scientific and technical prowess has taken on the character of a kind of myth, and that myth has deluded the nation’s politicians and business leaders."
José Filipe Torres
José Filipe Torres
José Filipe Torres is a Portuguese entrepreneur, spokesperson, and country branding expert.-Biography:Never having studied at a university, he started working as a paper cutter at the age of 18 for the publicity agency Novo Design...
, chief executive of Bloom Consulting, a Madrid
Madrid
Madrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
-based branding firm whose clients include Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, was quoted by Forbes
Forbes
Forbes is an American publishing and media company. Its flagship publication, the Forbes magazine, is published biweekly. Its primary competitors in the national business magazine category are Fortune, which is also published biweekly, and Business Week...
cautioning that, "Good brand positing doesn't always mean more tourism, economic development and foreign investment."
Research in the field
Jonathan Rose first wrote about this concept in 2000, in which he claimed that Canada has had "an unholy alliance between advertising agencies and political parties" since the formation of the Confederation in 1867.In a 2003 article, Rose wrote that that national myths and symbols reinforce and create a "community and binding [its citizens]. These myths are not judged on their veracity but rather [on] their metaphorical and symbolic meaning." Rose maintained that the messages within these "created" myths are disseminated and ultimately maintained through its "civil society from its institutions, public policies and government". His prototypical
Prototype
A prototype is an early sample or model built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from.The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον , "primitive form", neutral of πρωτότυπος , "original, primitive", from πρῶτος , "first" and τύπος ,...
study was on the Canadian
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
government's creation of national myths in the 1980s and 1990s. Rose pointed out what was unique (in the 1980s) several major points:
- "government advertising is used to create and develop national symbols and myths."
- that government used "advertising [that] centres around the existence of sub-national minorities," particularly to respond to threats from time to time of successionism in the province of QuebecQuebecQuebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
, which could be generalized to other nations with vocal minorities. - "advertising has become so pervasive in Canadian politics that issues requiring popular support are more than likely to be brought to the public directly through advertising campaigns."
Branding National Myths and Symbols was first coined in 2009 by Turkish-Australian scholar Hatice Sitki, who proposed in Myths, Symbols and Branding: Türkish National Identity and the EU, that these long-existing myths keep us from truly understanding and working with the "other
Other
The Other or Constitutive Other is a key concept in continental philosophy; it opposes the Same. The Other refers, or attempts to refer, to that which is Other than the initial concept being considered...
". Sitki proposes that cultural misunderstanding will continue between nations until they understand one another’s cultural myths and symbols. Sitki explains in the Cyclical Formula "Us/Other+Other", how Türkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
and the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
can benefit by accepting that they have, and continue, to play a "triple role" to one another.
BNMS argues that collective groups such as the EU do not need to be "branded" in order to improve their economic value. Rather, they need to be branded to achieve their cultural goal of moving from a "poly-cultural
Polyculturalism
"Polyculturalism" is a term for an assertion that all of the world's cultures are inter-related. It is thus opposed to the concept of multiculturalism, which its supporters argue is divisive. Polyculturalism was the subject of the 2001 book Everybody Was Kung Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian Connections and...
" society to becoming a "multicultural
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is the appreciation, acceptance or promotion of multiple cultures, applied to the demographic make-up of a specific place, usually at the organizational level, e.g...
" society. One way for this to be achieved is for nations to realise and work with the hidden meanings of their myths and symbols. Vijay Prashad proposes that the concept of polyculturalism is a way to combat anti-racism
Racism
Racism is the belief that inherent different traits in human racial groups justify discrimination. In the modern English language, the term "racism" is used predominantly as a pejorative epithet. It is applied especially to the practice or advocacy of racial discrimination of a pernicious nature...
. Prashad defines poly cultures as a "provisional concept grounded in antiracism, rather than in diversity..." Roger Hewitt takes a different approach to how peoples with different languages can understand each other. Hewitt argues that the concept of polyculturalism is "not intrinsically equal."
The "national myths" used in Masterpiece Theatre
Masterpiece Theatre
Masterpiece is a drama anthology television series produced by WGBH Boston. It premiered on Public Broadcasting Service on January 10, 1971, making it America's longest-running weekly prime time drama series. The series has presented numerous acclaimed British productions...
lead to "strengthen[ing] imperial attitudes", according to a 2009 book about the spate of Victorian British novels made in films from the 1980s through the 21st Century, and sources it cited.
Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck argues that the "invented tradition ... of Kwanzaa
Kwanzaa
Kwanzaa is a week long celebration held in the United States honoring universal African-American heritage and culture, observed from December 26 to January 1 each year. It features activities such as lighting a candle holder with seven candles and culminates in a feast and gift giving...
" was equivalent to the American Indian
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
challenge to "the National myth of inclusion of Thanksgiving
Thanksgiving
Thanksgiving Day is a holiday celebrated primarily in the United States and Canada. Thanksgiving is celebrated each year on the second Monday of October in Canada and on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States. In Canada, Thanksgiving falls on the same day as Columbus Day in the...
...."
Further reading
- Holt, D. B., 'Jack Daniel’s America, Iconic brands as ideological parasites and proselytizers', Journal of Consumer Culture, Sage Publications, London, 2006
- Fan, Y., 'Nation branding: what is being branded?', Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12:1, 5-14, 2006 from www.bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/1286
- Meike, E., and Spiekermann, M., ‘Nation Branding: San Marino developing into a brand’, 2005
- Weiner, E., National Public Radio's "Day to Day", January 11, 2006
- Gumbel, P., Time Magazine, May 29, 2005
- Risen, C., 'Branding Nations', New York Times, Dec 11, 2005
- Guerrini, S., 'Designing Nationality: The production of image and identity by the Argentine State', University of Kent at Canterbury, 2008
- Aronczyk, M., 'Better Living through Branding: Nation Branding and National Formations' in the Routledge Companion to Advertising and Promotional Culture, Matt McAllister and Emily West (ed.), New York Routledge, 2010
- Aronczyk, M., 'Research in Brief. How do things with brands: Uses of National Identity', Canadian Journal of Communication, vol 34:291-296, 2009
- Rose, J., 'Government advertising and the creation of national myths: The Canadian case', in ‘International Journal of Non-Profit and Voluntary Sector Marketing', Vol. 8, No. 2:153-165, Henry Stewart Publishing, 2003
- Olins, W., from www.wallyolins.com/includes/branding.pdf
- Olins, W., 'Branding the nation – the historical context in Journal of Brand Management', Vol 9:4-5, 2002
- Danser, S., 'The Myths of Reality', Alternative Albion, Loughborough (UK), 2005
- Endo, R., 'Everybody was Kung Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian connections and the myth of racial purity', by Vijay Prashard, International Migration Review, vol. 37, No. 4, The Future of the Second Generation: The Integration of Migrant Youth in Six European Countries (Winter) 1313-1314, 2003
- Hewitt, R., 'Language, Youth and the destabilisation of ethnicity', published in R Harris and B Rampton (eds.), The Language, Ethnicity and Race Reader, Routledge, London, 2003
- Sitki, H., ‘Myths, Symbols and Branding: Türkish National Identity and the EU', VDM, Dr. Muller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, 2009
See also
- Fortress EuropeFortress EuropeFortress Europe was a military propaganda term from the Second World War which referred to the areas of Continental Europe occupied by Nazi Germany, as opposed to the free United Kingdom across the Channel...
- Index of public relations-related articles
- Music and political warfareMusic and political warfareMusic and political warfare have been used together in many different political contexts and cultures as a way to reach a targeted audience in order to deliver a specific political message. Political warfare as defined by Paul A. Smith is the "use of political means to compel an opponent to do...
- National Anthem ProjectNational Anthem ProjectThe National Anthem Project was a public awareness campaign launched in 2005 as a major initiative of MENC: The National Association for Music Education...
- PropagandaPropagandaPropaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
- Public diplomacyPublic diplomacyIn international relations, public diplomacy or people's diplomacy, broadly speaking, is the communication with foreign publics to establish a dialogue designed to inform and influence. There is no one definition of Public Diplomacy, and may be easier described than easily defined as definitions...