Righteous armies, sometimes called
irregular armies or
militias, have emerged repeatedly in
Korean historyThe history of Korea stretches from Lower Paleolithic times to the present. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began before 6000 BC, followed by the Bronze Age around 2500 BC...
, when the national armies have been unable to defend the country. The first righteous armies emerged during the Khitan invasions of Korea and the
Mongol invasions of KoreaThe Mongol invasions of Korea consisted of a series of campaigns by the Mongol Empire against Korea, then known as Goryeo, from 1231 to 1270...
. They subsequently rose up during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598), the first and second Manchu invasions, and during the
Japanese occupationKorea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Formally, Japanese rule ended on September 2, 1945 upon the Japanese defeat in World War II in 1945....
and preceding events.
During the long period of Japanese invasion and occupation from 1890 to 1945, the disbanded imperial guard, and Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, formed over 60 successive
righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom on the Korean peninsula.
Righteous armies, sometimes called
irregular armies or
militias, have emerged repeatedly in
Korean historyThe history of Korea stretches from Lower Paleolithic times to the present. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began before 6000 BC, followed by the Bronze Age around 2500 BC...
, when the national armies have been unable to defend the country. The first righteous armies emerged during the Khitan invasions of Korea and the
Mongol invasions of KoreaThe Mongol invasions of Korea consisted of a series of campaigns by the Mongol Empire against Korea, then known as Goryeo, from 1231 to 1270...
. They subsequently rose up during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598), the first and second Manchu invasions, and during the
Japanese occupationKorea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Formally, Japanese rule ended on September 2, 1945 upon the Japanese defeat in World War II in 1945....
and preceding events.
During the long period of Japanese invasion and occupation from 1890 to 1945, the disbanded imperial guard, and Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, formed over 60 successive
righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom on the Korean peninsula. These were called the Righteous armies, who were preceded by the
DonghakDonghak is a Korean religion founded in 1860 by Choe Jeu. Donghak venerated the god "Haneullim" , and believed that man is not created by a supernatural God, but man is instead caused by an innate God...
movement, and succeeded by various Korean independence movements in the 1920s and beyond which declared Korean independence from Japanese occupation.
Righteous armies during the Japanese invasions of Korea
The righteous armies were an
irregular militaryIrregular military refers to any non-standard military. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term. It can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used....
that fought the Japanese army that twice invaded
KoreaKorea is a civilization and formerly unified nation currently divided into two states. Located on the Korean Peninsula, it borders China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait....
during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598). Righteous armies were most active in the
JeollaJeolla was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Jeolla was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Jeonju.-History:...
Province in the southwestern area of Korea. Righteous armies included peasants, scholars, former government officials, and Buddhist warrior monks as well. Righteous armies were important during the war because a significant portion of the expected government organized resistance had been destroyed in Gyeongsang and Chungcheong Provinces in the south by the force of Japanese arms at the outset. The
natural defenders had been stripped away and the residue had been called north to help protect the fleeing king. Moreover, many of the district officers had obtained their commissions not through merit, but by bribery or influence and were, essentially incompetent or cowards. This was highlighted in their performance and in the performance of their units in the early days of the conflict.
In Gyeongsang province
- Hapcheon
Hapcheon County is a county in South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Famous people born in the county include former South Korean president Chun Doo-hwan.-Location:...
(June 6 1592) : Kim Myeon and Jeong In-hong against Mori TerumotoMōri Terumoto , son of Mōri Takamoto and grandson and successor of the great warlord Mōri Motonari, fought against Toyotomi Hideyoshi but was eventually overcome, participated in the Kyūshū campaign on Hideyoshi's side and built Hiroshima Castle.Terumoto was a member of the council of Five Elders...
- Chogye
Chogye may refer to*Jogye Order, a Korean Buddhist order*Hapcheon, a county in South Gyeongsang province, South Korea...
(June 7 1592) : Son In-gap against Mori TerumotoMōri Terumoto , son of Mōri Takamoto and grandson and successor of the great warlord Mōri Motonari, fought against Toyotomi Hideyoshi but was eventually overcome, participated in the Kyūshū campaign on Hideyoshi's side and built Hiroshima Castle.Terumoto was a member of the council of Five Elders...
- Ucheokhyeon (July 10 1592) : Kim Myeon and Kim Seong-il against Kobayakawa Takakage
Kobayakawa Takakage was a samurai retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi during Japan's Sengoku period, and the son of Mōri Motonari...
- Yeongcheon
Yeongcheon is a city in North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea.Yeongcheon is located 350 km southeast of Seoul, in the southeast of North Gyeongsang Province. It is on the Gyeongbu Expressway linking Seoul and Busan, and is also the junction of the Jungang and Daegu railway lines.-Economy of...
(July 27 1592) : Gwon Ung-su and Park Jin against Fukushima Masanoriwas a Japanese daimyo of the late Sengoku Period to early Edo Period who served as lord of the Hiroshima Domain. A retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, he fought in the battle of Shizugatake in 1583, and soon became known as one of Seven Spears of Shizugatake which also included Kato Kiyomasa and...
- Uiryeong
Uiryeong County is a county in Gyeongsangnam-do, South Korea.Woo Bum-Kon carried out the worst incident of spree killing in known history here on April 26, 1982.-See also:* Yeongnam* Administrative divisions of South Korea...
: Gwak Jae-uGeneral Gwak Jae-u was a Korean patriot from Uiryeong; in 1592, nine days into Japanese invasions of Korea, he formed a militia to fight against the Japanese army. He was originally common people, but the King Seonjo granted him government service.-Raising an army:Gwak Jae-u disrupted Japanese...
against Kobayakawa TakakageKobayakawa Takakage was a samurai retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi during Japan's Sengoku period, and the son of Mōri Motonari...
- Hyeonpung : Gwak Jae-u against Hashiba Hidekatsu
- Yeongsan : Gwak Jae-u against Hashiba Hidekatsu
In Jeolla province
- Damyang (June 25 1592) : Go Gyeong-myeong and Yang Dae-park
- Naju
Naju is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju during early 20th century. The name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju and the first character of Naju . Dongshin University is situated in...
: Kim Cheon-il
- Gwangju
Gwangju Metropolitan City is the sixth largest city in South Korea. It is a designated metropolitan city under the direct control of the central government's Home Minister...
: Kim Deok-nyeong
In Chungcheong province
- Geumsan (July 9 1592) : Go Gyeong-myeong and Gwak Yong against Kobayakawa Takakage
Kobayakawa Takakage was a samurai retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi during Japan's Sengoku period, and the son of Mōri Motonari...
- Okcheon : Jo Heon
- Geumsan : Yeong-gyu and Jo Heon
- Cheongju
Cheongju is the capital city of Chungcheongbuk-do , South Korea. The city is divided into two wards , Heungdeok-gu and Sangdang-gu .-History:...
: Yeong-gyu and Jo Heon
19th and 20th century righteous armies
Late
Joseon dynastyJoseon , was a Korean sovereign state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo Kingdom at what is today the city of Kaesong...
period
Korean nationalismKorean Nationalism is a term referring to the Korean version of nationalism throughout history in order to maintain their culture, the myth of a "unique and pure" bloodline, and history from foreign invaders.-Origins:...
outgrew the unplanned, spontaneous, and disorganized
Donghak movementThe Donghak Peasant Revolution was an anti-government, anti-yangban and anti-foreign uprising in 1894 in Korea which was the catalyst for the First Sino-Japanese War. It was a religious and political movement directed at the Joseon dynasty with the intention of firstly establishing social reform...
, and became more violent as the Japanese occupation began a brutal regime throughout the Korean peninsula and pursued repressive policies against the Korean people.
The Japanese occupiers fought with state of the art cannons, machine guns, repeaters, mounted cavalry reconnaissance units in the mountains, and an entrenched class of informers and criminals developed over the previous decade before the battles began.
Koreans fought with antique muzzle-loaders, staves and iron bars, and their hands. There were rare instances of modern weapons, and a few enemy weapons captured. Europe, particularly England and Germany, and the western allies were on the side of Japan, profiting from huge arms and naval sales, and did much to prevent Korean forces from being resupplied.
For at least 13 years after 1905, small irregular forces, often led by regular army commanders, fought skirmishes and battles throughout Korea against Japanese police, armies, and underworld mercenaries who functioned to support Japanese corporations looting Korea, and as well armed Japanese settlers who seized Korean farms and land. In one period, according to Japanese records in
Boto Tobatsu-shi (Annals of the Subjugation of the Insurgent), between October 1907 and April 1908, over 1,908 attacks were made by the Korean people against the invaders.
While most attacks were done using available weapons, and bare hands, international arms dealers profited. Arms dealers and governments who supplied the Korean resistance included English arms dealers, Chinese arms dealers from across the Yalu and in coastal waters; German arms dealers provided Mausers, and a French cruiser in September 1908, resupplied Korean Catholic armies in payment for gold at exorbitant prices. Smugglers from Japan as well supplied Murada weapons, with links to anti-Meiji forces who hoped to see Ito and his clan toppled in the wake of disasters in the Japanese economy.
After the Russian revolution, some weaponry was diverted from the White forces into what is now North Korea, and supporters built there, however this was sparse and while white Russian mercenaries fought against the Japanese, this was a minor element.
During the Righteous Armies Wars
The Righteous Army was formed by Yu In-seok and other Confucian scholars during the Peasant Wars. Its ranks swelled after the Queen's murder by the Japanese troops and Koreans. Under the leadership of Min Jeong-sik, Choe Ik-hyeon and Sin Dol-seok, the Righteous Army attacked the Japanese army, Japanese merchants and pro-Japanese bureaucrats in the provinces of
GangwonGangwon Province or Gangwon-do was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The province was formed in 1395, and derived its name from the names of the principal cities of Gangneung and the provincial capital Wonju .In 1895, Gangwon-do was replaced by the Districts of...
,
ChungcheongChungcheong was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea...
,
JeollaJeolla was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Jeolla was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Jeonju.-History:...
and
GyeongsangGyeongsang was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea....
.
Choe Ik-hyeon was captured by the Japanese and taken to
Tsushima IslandTsushima is an island of the Japanese Archipelago situated in the middle of Korea Strait at 34°25'N and 129°20'E. It is the largest island of Nagasaki Prefecture. The city of Tsushima encompasses the entire island.- Geography :...
where he went on
hunger strikeA hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance or pressure in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke feelings of guilt in others, usually with the objective to achieve a specific goal, such as a policy change. Most hunger strikers will take liquids but not...
and finally died as a martyr. Shin Dol-seok, an uneducated peasant commanded over 3,000 troops. Among the troops were former government soldiers, poor peasants, fishermen, tiger hunters, miners, merchants, and laborers.
In 1907, the Righteous Army under the command of Yi In-yeong massed 10,000 troops to liberate Seoul and defeat the Japanese. The Army came within 12 km of Seoul but could not withstand the Japanese counter-offensive. The Righteous Army was no match for two infantry divisions of 20,000 Japanese soldiers backed by warships moored near Inchon.
The Righteous Army retreated from Seoul and the war went on for two more years. Over 17,000 Righteous Army soldiers were killed and more than 37,000 were wounded in combat. Unable to fight the Japanese army head-on, the Righteous Army split into small bands of
partisansA partisan is a member of an irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of occupation. The term can apply to the field element of resistance movements that opposed German rule in several countries during World War II .- History :As early as the...
to carry on the War of Liberation in China, Siberia and the Jangbaik Mountains in Korea. The Japanese troops first quashed the Peasant Army and then disbanded what remained of the government army. Many of the surviving guerrilla and anti-Japanese government troops fled to
ManchuriaManchuria is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria either falls entirely within China, or is divided between China and Russia...
and
SiberiaSiberia , is the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving as the massive central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, having served in the same capacity previously for the USSR from its beginning, and the Russian Empire beginning in the...
and carried on their fight.
Armies and orders of battle
Of the sixty righteous armies, the list and descriptions below follow what is known of the names of the more well known armies and their sequential appearance in combat; individual generals and named figures are given larger biographies on separate articles which cite more historical background.
In 1895: Righteous army of Eulmi
- Yi So-ung
- No Eung-gyu
- Gi U-man
- Yi Gang-nyeon
In 1905: Righteous army of Eulsa
- Choe Ik-hyeon
- Min Jong-sik
- Shin Dol-seok
- Jeong Yong-gi
- Yi Han-gu
- Im Byeong-chan
In 1907: Righteous army of Jeongmi
- Hong Beom-do
Hong Beom-do , is a Korean independence activist. Hong was born in Chasong, North Pyongan.- Biography :...
- Cha Doseon
- Kim Su-min
- Min Geung-ho
13 province alliance righteous army in 1908
- Commander in chief : Yi In-yeong
- Commander : Heo Wi
- Representative of Gangwon
Gangwon Province or Gangwon-do was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The province was formed in 1395, and derived its name from the names of the principal cities of Gangneung and the provincial capital Wonju .In 1895, Gangwon-do was replaced by the Districts of...
: Min Geung-ho
- Representative of Chungcheong
Chungcheong was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea...
: Yi Gang-nyeon
- Representative of Gyeongsang
Gyeongsang was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea....
: Park Jeong-bin
- Representative of Gyeonggi, Hwanghae
Hwanghae was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty, and one of the thirteen provinces of Korea during the Japanese Colonial Period. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju....
: Gwon Jung-hui
- Representative of Pyeongan : Bang In-gwan
- Representative of North Hamgyeong : Jeong Bong-jun
- Representative of Jeolla
Jeolla was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Jeolla was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Jeonju.-History:...
: Mun Tae-su
New research on the righteous armies
As both Confucianism and modernism have been given some distance by a century from their influence on Korean culture, there has been much interest on righteous armies as both continuing traditions and as well modernizing Korea on its own terms, thus lessening the traditional argument that Japan modernized Korea through invasion.
See also
- List of Korea-related topics
- History of Korea
The history of Korea stretches from Lower Paleolithic times to the present. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began before 6000 BC, followed by the Bronze Age around 2500 BC...
- Korean independence movement
The Korean independence movement grew out of the Japanese colonial rule of Korea from 1910-1945.-Background:During the nearly five centuries of the Joseon dynasty, Korea kept its independence through careful diplomacy with China...
- Korean Liberation Army
The Korean Liberation Army, established on September 17 1941 in Chongqing, China, was the armed force of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea...
External links
- Professor Song Su-Pak has done a sociological analysis of the background for the Righteous army leaders.