Rickard de Bermingham
Encyclopedia
Rickard de Bermingham aka Rickard Mac Fheorais, was Anglo-Irish
lord of Athenry
.
and Dunmore
, both in County Galway
. He was a grandson of Meyler de Bermingham
, the founder of Athenry. He was the chief tenent in south Connacht of Richard Og de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster
, who's desmene lands stretched from the port town of Galway
to Meelick
on the River Shannon
, de Burgh's caput
been the town of Loughrea
.
Despite his ethnic background, de Bermingham and his family are always described in the Gaelic-Irish annals as Mac Fheorais, indicating his descent from Peter (Piarus, a quo (Fheorais) de Bermingham. The identity of Rickard's mother is uncertain though it is thought she was Gaelic, possibly an O'Kelly.
This may explain why the family were regarded as at least semi-Gaelic by bard
s and seanchai so early in their history. Alternatively, the appellation Mac Fheorais may have begun with Peter of Tethmoy, father of Rickard's grandfather, Meyler de Bermingham
.
Rickard is described in Leabhar na nGenealach
as:
in northern Connacht, but his main estate lady between Dunmore and Athenry in what is now County Galway
, the caput of the lordship been based at the latter town. Immediately due east was the Gaelic kingdom of Ui Maine, which had only been lightly settled by the Anglo-Irish, mainly along the border between it and the lordship.
In 1310 he obtained a murage
charter
, to enable him to enclose Athenry in stone walls. When finished, they enclosed over one hundred acres on the west bank of the Clarin
river, making it one of the largest walled towns in Ireland. Over two-thirds of the walls still remain, almost unique for a town of medieval Ireland
and Great Britain
. Some six round watch-towers were included in the walls, most of which survive in some form, two exceptionally well-preserved.
He also extended and raised Athenry Castle. When work was completed c. 1315, it stood over three stories and had a vaulted roof, thought to be slated as thatch would make it vulnerable to lighting, fire-arrows, and accident. It was situated at the north edge of the town, overlooking the Tuam
and Monivea
roads. It was abandoned by Rickard's descedents c. 1550, but the stone work survived almost intact. It was refurbished and re-roofed in 1990 and is at present open to the public.
Finally, he incorporated the Clarin into the town moat, and built a number of tower-gates along the wall. The total number is uncertain but it is thought there were around four. Only one partially-restored gate, the North Gate, now survives, though it may date from as much as one hundred years later.
Wars of 1315-16 (an offshoot of the Irish Bruce Wars 1315–1318, de Bermingham defended the Anglo-Irish
colony in Connacht against Ruaidhri O Conchobair, who was supported by Prince Edward Bruce
in his wish to become King of Connacht. Ruaidhri defeated the then king, Fedlim Ó Conchobair, who turned to the Anglo-Irish such as de Bermingham for help.
A coalition of Gaelic and Anglo forces defeated and killed Ruaidhri at the battle of Mullach Fidicci in north Galway, in January 1316. De Bermingham was wounded, how seriously is unknown.
After the battle, Fedlim betrayed his Anglo-Irish allies. He began destroying their settlements, killing their inhabitants and stealing their goods, his ultimate aim to exterminate the entire colony and re-establish an independent Connacht kingship, and later, establish himself as King of Ireland
. Due to the on-going warfare with Edward Bruce in Meath
and Leinster, no help was forthcoming and the Anglo-Irish of Connacht
were left to fend for themselves. Famine had broken out the previous year and its effect exacerbated the situation.
. Sometime in early, the Earl of Ulster
obtained his release. De Burgh arrived back in Connacht with new forces and made his way to Athenry to support de Bermingham. Upon hearing of this, King Fedlim broke off a march towards Roscommon
, assembled an army estimated as much as eight thousand, and marched towards Athenry, intending to raze it to the ground.
The exact circumstances surrounding the events, and location, of the Second Battle of Athenry
are obscure. All that can be said with certainty is that it was fought somewhere very close to the town on 10 August 1316, and the Gaelic-Irish forces were comprehensively defeated. John Clyn
states that one thousand five hundred heads were collected from the battlefield and sent to Dublin for bounty
. among the dead were King Fedlim and Tadhg Ó Cellaigh
, King of Ui Maine. Their heads were afterwards set on pikes
on either side of the town gate. This image is still the coat of arms
of Athenry.
Due to a falling-out with King Fedlim, Muirchertach O Brian, Prince of Thomond
, defected at some point and aided de Bermingham and de Burgh in defending the town. He became undisputed king of Thomond in 1318. In the same year, Rickard's kinsman, John de Bermingham of Offaly, fought and defeated Edward Bruce
at Faughart
, for which he was made Earl of Louth.
Local tradition holds that a soldier prayed for deliverance at Lady's Well, one mile east of the town, on the day of the battle, and was rewarded with a vision of the Virgin Mary. The soldier may have been Rickard de Bermingham.
Another son, Risteard Ruadh, is listed by Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh
as an ancestor of "The family of Feorus of Clar Cairbre", giving a descend for a Eabhard Mac Feorais from An Charraig s. Baitear s. Seaan over thirteen generations inclusive, though part of the pedigree is faulty.
One Baitear mc Risder an Chatha is given in the same work as the ancestor of a line whose pedigree
is given as Thomas s. Risteard an Bhealaigh s. Maoilir Buidhe s. Thomas Og (or Dubh) s. Thomas na Feasoige [=of the beard] s. Baitear s. Risteard an Chatha. They are listed as of Dunmore, County Galway.
|
|__________________________ William de Worchester, fl. 1230.
| | | | |
| | | | |
James Andrew Maurice Meyler de Bermingham
= Basilia de Worchester
| |
| |_______________________________________
John de Bermingham, 1st Earl of Louth
| | |
| | |
Peter Basilia William, Archbishop of Tuam
=Ni Cellaigh? =Jordan de Exeter
d. 1309
| | |
| | |
Rickard Jordan Óge de Exeter
Simon
=? d.1319 d. 1329.
|
|________________________________________________
| | | |
| | | |
Myler Thomas, d. 1375 Risteard Ruadh Baitear(Walter)
d.1302. | (Bermingham of Carbury) (Bermingham of Dunmore)
| (in County Sligo) (in County Galway)
Walter, d.1428
|
|
Thomas, d.1473, from who descended the later Lords Athenry.
Anglo-Irish
Anglo-Irish was a term used primarily in the 19th and early 20th centuries to identify a privileged social class in Ireland, whose members were the descendants and successors of the Protestant Ascendancy, mostly belonging to the Church of Ireland, which was the established church of Ireland until...
lord of Athenry
Athenry
Athenry is a town in County Galway, Ireland. It lies east of Galway city, and one of the attractions of the town is its medieval castle. The town is also well-known by virtue of the song "The Fields of Athenry".-History:...
.
Family background
Rickard is reckoned third lord of AthenryAthenry
Athenry is a town in County Galway, Ireland. It lies east of Galway city, and one of the attractions of the town is its medieval castle. The town is also well-known by virtue of the song "The Fields of Athenry".-History:...
and Dunmore
Dunmore
Dunmore is a village in County Galway, Ireland. It is located on the N83 national secondary road at its junction with the R328 and R360 regional roads.Until the early 1980s, the N83 through Dunmore was on the main road from Sligo to Galway City...
, both in County Galway
County Galway
County Galway is a county in Ireland. It is located in the West Region and is also part of the province of Connacht. It is named after the city of Galway. Galway County Council is the local authority for the county. There are several strongly Irish-speaking areas in the west of the county...
. He was a grandson of Meyler de Bermingham
Meyler de Bermingham
-Ancestry:Meyler was a great-grandson of Robert de Bermingham who is said to have obtained a grant of Offaly from Strongbow or Henry II about 1172. Robert's son and grandson were both described as of Tethmoy, which is thought to have been the baronies of Warrenstown and part of Coolestown...
, the founder of Athenry. He was the chief tenent in south Connacht of Richard Og de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster
Richard Óg de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster
Richard Óg de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster and 3rd Baron of Connaught , called The Red Earl, was one of the most powerful Irish nobles of the late 13th and early 14th centuries.-Early life:...
, who's desmene lands stretched from the port town of Galway
Galway
Galway or City of Galway is a city in County Galway, Republic of Ireland. It is the sixth largest and the fastest-growing city in Ireland. It is also the third largest city within the Republic and the only city in the Province of Connacht. Located on the west coast of Ireland, it sits on the...
to Meelick
Meelick
-Places:Meelick, is a placename used in the West of Ireland.It may refer to:* Meelick, County Clare* Meelick, County Mayo* Meelick, County Galway...
on the River Shannon
River Shannon
The River Shannon is the longest river in Ireland at . It divides the west of Ireland from the east and south . County Clare, being west of the Shannon but part of the province of Munster, is the major exception...
, de Burgh's caput
Caput
The Latin word caput, meaning literally "head" and by metonymy "top", has been borrowed in a variety of English words, including capital, captain, and decapitate...
been the town of Loughrea
Loughrea
Loughrea is a town in County Galway, Ireland. The town lies north of a range of wooded hills, the Slieve Aughty Mountains.The town expanded in recent years as it increasingly becomes a commuter town for the city of Galway.- Name :...
.
Despite his ethnic background, de Bermingham and his family are always described in the Gaelic-Irish annals as Mac Fheorais, indicating his descent from Peter (Piarus, a quo (Fheorais) de Bermingham. The identity of Rickard's mother is uncertain though it is thought she was Gaelic, possibly an O'Kelly.
This may explain why the family were regarded as at least semi-Gaelic by bard
Bard
In medieval Gaelic and British culture a bard was a professional poet, employed by a patron, such as a monarch or nobleman, to commemorate the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities.Originally a specific class of poet, contrasting with another class known as fili in Ireland...
s and seanchai so early in their history. Alternatively, the appellation Mac Fheorais may have begun with Peter of Tethmoy, father of Rickard's grandfather, Meyler de Bermingham
Meyler de Bermingham
-Ancestry:Meyler was a great-grandson of Robert de Bermingham who is said to have obtained a grant of Offaly from Strongbow or Henry II about 1172. Robert's son and grandson were both described as of Tethmoy, which is thought to have been the baronies of Warrenstown and part of Coolestown...
.
Rickard is described in Leabhar na nGenealach
Leabhar na nGenealach
Leabhar na nGenealach is a massive genealogical collection written mainly in the years 1649 to 1650, at the college-house of St. Nicholas's church, Galway, by Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh. He continued to add material until at least 1666, five years before he was murdered in 1671...
as:
Risteard na gCath [=of the battles] - the battle of Ath na Riogh [=Athenry], the battle of Cnoc an Tochair [=Knocktopher] and the battle of Fionnlugh
Lord of Athenry
He succeeded his father, Peter, around 1309. He had land around the MoyMoy
-Places:* Loch Moy, a loch south of Inverness in the Highlands of Scotland.** Moy, Highland, a village beside Loch Moy** Moy Hall, also near the loch and the ancestral home of the chiefs of Clan Mackintosh** Rout of Moy, an event in the Jacobite rising of 1745...
in northern Connacht, but his main estate lady between Dunmore and Athenry in what is now County Galway
County Galway
County Galway is a county in Ireland. It is located in the West Region and is also part of the province of Connacht. It is named after the city of Galway. Galway County Council is the local authority for the county. There are several strongly Irish-speaking areas in the west of the county...
, the caput of the lordship been based at the latter town. Immediately due east was the Gaelic kingdom of Ui Maine, which had only been lightly settled by the Anglo-Irish, mainly along the border between it and the lordship.
In 1310 he obtained a murage
Murage
Murage was a medieval toll for the building or repair of town walls in England and Wales.This was granted by the king by letters patent for a limited term, but the walls were frequently not completed within the term, so that the grant was periodically renewed....
charter
Charter
A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified...
, to enable him to enclose Athenry in stone walls. When finished, they enclosed over one hundred acres on the west bank of the Clarin
Clarin
Clarin or Clarín may refer to a number of things:*In Argentina, Clarín , the country's main newspaper*In Chile,El Clarín de Chile, a Chilean newspaper*In the Philippines:**The municipality of Clarin, Bohol...
river, making it one of the largest walled towns in Ireland. Over two-thirds of the walls still remain, almost unique for a town of medieval Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
and Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
. Some six round watch-towers were included in the walls, most of which survive in some form, two exceptionally well-preserved.
He also extended and raised Athenry Castle. When work was completed c. 1315, it stood over three stories and had a vaulted roof, thought to be slated as thatch would make it vulnerable to lighting, fire-arrows, and accident. It was situated at the north edge of the town, overlooking the Tuam
Tuam
Tuam is a town in County Galway, Ireland. The name is pronounced choo-um . It is situated west of the midlands of Ireland, and north of Galway city.-History:...
and Monivea
Monivea
Monivea It was formerly part of the kingdom of the Soghain of Connacht. It is located approximately 30 km from Galway City and 9 km from Athenry. Monivea is known for its sizable forest, Monivea Castle which now lies in partial ruins, and a well-preserved mausoleum...
roads. It was abandoned by Rickard's descedents c. 1550, but the stone work survived almost intact. It was refurbished and re-roofed in 1990 and is at present open to the public.
Finally, he incorporated the Clarin into the town moat, and built a number of tower-gates along the wall. The total number is uncertain but it is thought there were around four. Only one partially-restored gate, the North Gate, now survives, though it may date from as much as one hundred years later.
Connacht Wars of 1315-16
During the ConnachtConnacht
Connacht , formerly anglicised as Connaught, is one of the Provinces of Ireland situated in the west of Ireland. In Ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for...
Wars of 1315-16 (an offshoot of the Irish Bruce Wars 1315–1318, de Bermingham defended the Anglo-Irish
Anglo-Irish
Anglo-Irish was a term used primarily in the 19th and early 20th centuries to identify a privileged social class in Ireland, whose members were the descendants and successors of the Protestant Ascendancy, mostly belonging to the Church of Ireland, which was the established church of Ireland until...
colony in Connacht against Ruaidhri O Conchobair, who was supported by Prince Edward Bruce
Edward Bruce
Edward the Bruce , sometimes modernised Edward of Bruce, was a younger brother of King Robert I of Scotland, who supported his brother in the struggle for the crown of Scotland, then pursued his own claim in Ireland. He was proclaimed High King of Ireland, but was eventually defeated and killed in...
in his wish to become King of Connacht. Ruaidhri defeated the then king, Fedlim Ó Conchobair, who turned to the Anglo-Irish such as de Bermingham for help.
A coalition of Gaelic and Anglo forces defeated and killed Ruaidhri at the battle of Mullach Fidicci in north Galway, in January 1316. De Bermingham was wounded, how seriously is unknown.
After the battle, Fedlim betrayed his Anglo-Irish allies. He began destroying their settlements, killing their inhabitants and stealing their goods, his ultimate aim to exterminate the entire colony and re-establish an independent Connacht kingship, and later, establish himself as King of Ireland
King of Ireland
A monarchical polity has existed in Ireland during three periods of its history, finally ending in 1801. The designation King of Ireland and Queen of Ireland was used during these periods...
. Due to the on-going warfare with Edward Bruce in Meath
County Meath
County Meath is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Mid-East Region and is also located in the province of Leinster. It is named after the ancient Kingdom of Mide . Meath County Council is the local authority for the county...
and Leinster, no help was forthcoming and the Anglo-Irish of Connacht
Connacht
Connacht , formerly anglicised as Connaught, is one of the Provinces of Ireland situated in the west of Ireland. In Ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for...
were left to fend for themselves. Famine had broken out the previous year and its effect exacerbated the situation.
Second Battle of Athenry
Sir William Liath de Burgh had been captured at the battle of Connor in 1315 and had been held hostage in ScotlandScotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
. Sometime in early, the Earl of Ulster
Earl of Ulster
The title of Earl of Ulster has been created several times in the Peerage of Ireland and Peerage of the United Kingdom. Currently, the title is a subsidiary title of the Duke of Gloucester, and is used as a courtesy title by the Duke's son, Alexander Windsor, Earl of Ulster...
obtained his release. De Burgh arrived back in Connacht with new forces and made his way to Athenry to support de Bermingham. Upon hearing of this, King Fedlim broke off a march towards Roscommon
Roscommon
Roscommon is the county town of County Roscommon in Ireland. Its population at the 2006 census stood at 5,017 . The town is located near the junctions of the N60, N61 and N63 roads.-History:...
, assembled an army estimated as much as eight thousand, and marched towards Athenry, intending to raze it to the ground.
The exact circumstances surrounding the events, and location, of the Second Battle of Athenry
Second Battle of Athenry
The Second Battle of Athenry took place at Athenry in Ireland on 10 August 1316 during the Bruce campaign in Ireland.-Overview:The collective number of both armies are unknown, and can only be estimated. Martyn believes the royal army to have been as much as or more than a thousand, while that of...
are obscure. All that can be said with certainty is that it was fought somewhere very close to the town on 10 August 1316, and the Gaelic-Irish forces were comprehensively defeated. John Clyn
John Clyn
John Clyn of the Friars Minor, Kilkenny, was a 14th century Irish monk and chronicler who lived at the time of the Black Death.-Background:...
states that one thousand five hundred heads were collected from the battlefield and sent to Dublin for bounty
Bounty
Bounty may refer to:* Bounty , an amount of money or other reward offered by an organization for the capture of a person or thingIn transportation:, an 18th century British Royal Navy ship...
. among the dead were King Fedlim and Tadhg Ó Cellaigh
Tadhg Ó Cellaigh
-Background:Tadhg was one of five sons of Domhnall mac Conchobar mac Tadhg Taillten Ó Cellaigh, listed as"Gilbert, King of Hy-Many, David, Tadhg Mor of the Battle of Ath na Righ, and Conchobhar, King of Hy-Many, and Aedh...
, King of Ui Maine. Their heads were afterwards set on pikes
Pike (weapon)
A pike is a pole weapon, a very long thrusting spear used extensively by infantry both for attacks on enemy foot soldiers and as a counter-measure against cavalry assaults. Unlike many similar weapons, the pike is not intended to be thrown. Pikes were used regularly in European warfare from the...
on either side of the town gate. This image is still the coat of arms
Coat of arms
A coat of arms is a unique heraldic design on a shield or escutcheon or on a surcoat or tabard used to cover and protect armour and to identify the wearer. Thus the term is often stated as "coat-armour", because it was anciently displayed on the front of a coat of cloth...
of Athenry.
Due to a falling-out with King Fedlim, Muirchertach O Brian, Prince of Thomond
Thomond
Thomond The region of Ireland associated with the name Thomond is County Clare, County Limerick and north County Tipperary; effectively most of north Munster. The name is used by a variety of establishments and organisations located in , or associated with the region...
, defected at some point and aided de Bermingham and de Burgh in defending the town. He became undisputed king of Thomond in 1318. In the same year, Rickard's kinsman, John de Bermingham of Offaly, fought and defeated Edward Bruce
Edward Bruce
Edward the Bruce , sometimes modernised Edward of Bruce, was a younger brother of King Robert I of Scotland, who supported his brother in the struggle for the crown of Scotland, then pursued his own claim in Ireland. He was proclaimed High King of Ireland, but was eventually defeated and killed in...
at Faughart
Faughart
Faughart is a town in County Louth, Ireland, situated between Forkill and Dundalk. It was the birthplace of St. Brigid , and Edward Bruce is buried in the graveyard on the hill above the town. Bruce, who had taken the title King of Ireland, was defeated and killed at the Battle of Faughart in 1318....
, for which he was made Earl of Louth.
Local tradition holds that a soldier prayed for deliverance at Lady's Well, one mile east of the town, on the day of the battle, and was rewarded with a vision of the Virgin Mary. The soldier may have been Rickard de Bermingham.
Children
Rickard was succeeded by his son Thomas in 1322.Another son, Risteard Ruadh, is listed by Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh
Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh
Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh, also known as Dubhaltach Óg mac Giolla Íosa Mór mac Dubhaltach Mór Mac Fhirbhisigh, Duald Mac Firbis, Dudly Ferbisie, and Dualdus Firbissius was an Irish scribe, translator, historian and genealogist...
as an ancestor of "The family of Feorus of Clar Cairbre", giving a descend for a Eabhard Mac Feorais from An Charraig s. Baitear s. Seaan over thirteen generations inclusive, though part of the pedigree is faulty.
One Baitear mc Risder an Chatha is given in the same work as the ancestor of a line whose pedigree
Pedigree
Pedigree can refer to the lineage or genealogical descent of people, whether documented or not, or of animals, whether purebred or not. This can include:-Concepts and documents:...
is given as Thomas s. Risteard an Bhealaigh s. Maoilir Buidhe s. Thomas Og (or Dubh) s. Thomas na Feasoige [=of the beard] s. Baitear s. Risteard an Chatha. They are listed as of Dunmore, County Galway.
Select genealogy
Peter (Piers) of Tethmoy, d. 1254|
|__________________________ William de Worchester, fl. 1230.
| | | | |
| | | | |
James Andrew Maurice Meyler de Bermingham
Meyler de Bermingham
-Ancestry:Meyler was a great-grandson of Robert de Bermingham who is said to have obtained a grant of Offaly from Strongbow or Henry II about 1172. Robert's son and grandson were both described as of Tethmoy, which is thought to have been the baronies of Warrenstown and part of Coolestown...
= Basilia de Worchester
| |
| |_______________________________________
John de Bermingham, 1st Earl of Louth
John de Bermingham, 1st Earl of Louth
John de Bermingham, 1st Earl of Louth was an Irish peer. He was the commander of the Anglo-Irish army in the Battle of Faughart, the decisive battle in the Irish Bruce Wars 1315–1318...
| | |
| | |
Peter Basilia William, Archbishop of Tuam
Archbishop of Tuam
The Archbishop of Tuam is an archiepiscopal title which takes its name after the town of Tuam in County Galway, Ireland. The title was used by the Church of Ireland until 1839, and is still in use by the Roman Catholic Church.-History:...
=Ni Cellaigh? =Jordan de Exeter
Jordan de Exeter
Jordan de Exeter was an Anglo-Norman knight, Sheriff of Connacht, and ancestor of the Clan Siurtain Gaileng/Mac Siurtain/Mac Jordan of Connacht.-Life and family:...
d. 1309
| | |
| | |
Rickard Jordan Óge de Exeter
Jordan Óge de Exeter
Jordan Óge de Exeter was an Anglo-Irish knight and Sheriff of Connacht.The younger son of Jordan de Exeter and Basilia de Bermingham, Jordan Óge first came to notice as Sheriff of Connacht in 1269, a post he held again in 1279. In 1280 he was Constable of Roscommon castle...
Simon
=? d.1319 d. 1329.
|
|________________________________________________
| | | |
| | | |
Myler Thomas, d. 1375 Risteard Ruadh Baitear(Walter)
d.1302. | (Bermingham of Carbury) (Bermingham of Dunmore)
| (in County Sligo) (in County Galway)
Walter, d.1428
|
|
Thomas, d.1473, from who descended the later Lords Athenry.
External links
- http://books.google.ie/books?id=kVslRbrSH7QC&pg=PA38&lpg=PA38&dq=tethmoy&source=bl&ots=k8N_47voWF&sig=htyy3-3IPIXzfuFK40UJyoBQKaE&hl=en&ei=4IdaSveVGuSrjAeygrUb&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5
- http://www.edenderryhistory.org/history/EdenderryHistoryMiddleAges.html
- http://www.irishmidlandsancestry.com/content/family_history/families/fitzgerald_offaly.htm
- http://www.stirnet.com/main/index.php?option=com_wrapper&Itemid=79&startUrl=http://www.stirnet.com/HTML/genie/british/bb4ae/bermingham1.htm