Palikur
Encyclopedia
The Palikur are an Arawak-speaking
clan society located in the riverine areas of the Brazilian state of Amapá
and the eastern border area of French Guiana
, on the left bank of the Oyapock River
. The Palikur nation, or naoné, presently (2009) number around 2000 people; of these roughly two-thirds live in Brazil, and the remainder in French Guiana.
made them one of the first Amazonian tribes ever encountered by Europeans. As early as 1507 their name was recorded by the Spanish explorer Vicente Yañez Pinzón
. By the middle of the 17th century there was an estimated 1,200 Palikur population, of which 400 bowmen, roughly one third of their total population living between the Cassiporé and Maroni
rivers. They were enaged in a century-long war with the Galibi, and resisted missionization. The Palikur were also embroiled in the protracted colonial rivalry between Portugal and France for control of the region, extending south of Ile de Cayenne (French Guiana) into what today constitutes the Brazilian state of Amapá. A Portuguese expedition of the late 18th century burned all Indian villages in the territory, which was then under French influence, and deported the Palikur, who had become allies with the French, into the interior of Brazil. Consequently, the Palikur remained isolated for much of the next century. After Amapá was finally conceded to Brazil
in 1900, some 200 to 300 Palikur chose to move from Brazil to French Guiana, where they had long enjoyed good relations with the Créole population.*
The majority of Brazilian despised the Indians, and on their side, the Palikur had not forgotten their ancestors' enslavement by the Portuguese. In 1942 the Brazilian Indian Protection Service (SPI
) installed a Nationalization Service in the area with the purpose of integrating the natives, but with limited success. As an example, the Palikur elders refused schooling to their people because they perceived it as a form of slavery
. In the early 1960s, a community schism following a shamanic war caused part of the Brazilian Palikur community to relocate to French Guiana. Successive waves of migrants have continued to replenish the French Guianese Palikur community. Not until the late 1960s, with the creation of FUNAI
, and as they began converting to Pentecostalism
, did the Palikur became more responsive to the Brazilian government. Between 1977 and 1981 FUNAI
demarcated a common area of 4347 km2 for the Palikur, Uaçá Galibi, and Karipúna. In 1980 a Pentecostal church was built in the village of Ukumene, gathering a population of 350, nearly two thirds of the then Brazilian Palikuri population, and more than a third of the global Palikuris.
, supplemented by hunting
and horticulture
. Manioc, roasted, or used for the preparation of flat cakes and beer, is the main cultivated plant. Sweet potatoes, sugarcane
, peppers
, gourds, cotton
, and papayas, which the Palikur have adopted from the Europeans, along with mangoes, coffee
, and citrus trees, are also cultivated. Commercial relations between the Palikur and the Europeans began to intensify in the early 18th century; river and forest products were exchanged for tools, harpoons, clothes and glass beads. Until the end of the 19th century the main commercial surplus was roasted manioc flour
. In the 1940s and 1950s an intense commerce with alligator
skins took place, until the alligator population was depleted. The Palikur manufacture objects of wood, bone, feathers, and cotton seed. They are also regionally famous for their basket-ware. Shotguns for hunting
and harpoons and cotton fishing
lines are being widely used at the present. In French Guiana particularly, a growing number of Palikur are engaging in the market-economy.
Arawakan languages
Macro-Arawakan is a proposed language family of South America and the Caribbean based on the Arawakan languages. Sometimes the proposal is called Arawakan, in which case the central family is called Maipurean....
clan society located in the riverine areas of the Brazilian state of Amapá
Amapá
Amapá is one of the states of Brazil, located in the extreme north, bordering French Guiana and Suriname to the north. To the east is the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south and west is the Brazilian state of Pará. Perhaps one of the main features of the state is the River Oiapoque, as it was once...
and the eastern border area of French Guiana
French Guiana
French Guiana is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department located on the northern Atlantic coast of South America. It has borders with two nations, Brazil to the east and south, and Suriname to the west...
, on the left bank of the Oyapock River
Oyapock River
The Oyapock or Oiapoque River is a 370-km long river in South America that forms most of the border between French Guiana and the Brazilian state of Amapá...
. The Palikur nation, or naoné, presently (2009) number around 2000 people; of these roughly two-thirds live in Brazil, and the remainder in French Guiana.
History
The location of the Palikur near the mouths of the AmazonAmazon River
The Amazon of South America is the second longest river in the world and by far the largest by waterflow with an average discharge greater than the next seven largest rivers combined...
made them one of the first Amazonian tribes ever encountered by Europeans. As early as 1507 their name was recorded by the Spanish explorer Vicente Yañez Pinzón
Vicente Yáñez Pinzón
Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was a Spanish navigator, explorer, and conquistador, the youngest of the Pinzón brothers...
. By the middle of the 17th century there was an estimated 1,200 Palikur population, of which 400 bowmen, roughly one third of their total population living between the Cassiporé and Maroni
Maroni River
The Maroni or Marowijne is a river in South America. It originates in the Tumuk Humak Mountains and forms the border between French Guiana and Suriname...
rivers. They were enaged in a century-long war with the Galibi, and resisted missionization. The Palikur were also embroiled in the protracted colonial rivalry between Portugal and France for control of the region, extending south of Ile de Cayenne (French Guiana) into what today constitutes the Brazilian state of Amapá. A Portuguese expedition of the late 18th century burned all Indian villages in the territory, which was then under French influence, and deported the Palikur, who had become allies with the French, into the interior of Brazil. Consequently, the Palikur remained isolated for much of the next century. After Amapá was finally conceded to Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
in 1900, some 200 to 300 Palikur chose to move from Brazil to French Guiana, where they had long enjoyed good relations with the Créole population.*
The majority of Brazilian despised the Indians, and on their side, the Palikur had not forgotten their ancestors' enslavement by the Portuguese. In 1942 the Brazilian Indian Protection Service (SPI
SPI
SPI may refer to:-Companies:* Shotmed Paper Industries, an Egyptian paper manufacturer* Simulations Publications, Inc., an American publisher of board wargames* Sony Pictures Imageworks, a visual effects and animation company...
) installed a Nationalization Service in the area with the purpose of integrating the natives, but with limited success. As an example, the Palikur elders refused schooling to their people because they perceived it as a form of slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
. In the early 1960s, a community schism following a shamanic war caused part of the Brazilian Palikur community to relocate to French Guiana. Successive waves of migrants have continued to replenish the French Guianese Palikur community. Not until the late 1960s, with the creation of FUNAI
Funai
Funai Electric is a Japanese consumer electronics company headquartered in Daitō, Osaka. The company was founded in 1961. It owns the subsidiary Funai Corporation, Inc., established in the United States since 1991, to market and maintain Funai-licensed brands such as Sylvania, Emerson Radio,...
, and as they began converting to Pentecostalism
Pentecostalism
Pentecostalism is a diverse and complex movement within Christianity that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of God through the baptism in the Holy Spirit, has an eschatological focus, and is an experiential religion. The term Pentecostal is derived from Pentecost, the Greek...
, did the Palikur became more responsive to the Brazilian government. Between 1977 and 1981 FUNAI
Funai
Funai Electric is a Japanese consumer electronics company headquartered in Daitō, Osaka. The company was founded in 1961. It owns the subsidiary Funai Corporation, Inc., established in the United States since 1991, to market and maintain Funai-licensed brands such as Sylvania, Emerson Radio,...
demarcated a common area of 4347 km2 for the Palikur, Uaçá Galibi, and Karipúna. In 1980 a Pentecostal church was built in the village of Ukumene, gathering a population of 350, nearly two thirds of the then Brazilian Palikuri population, and more than a third of the global Palikuris.
Economy
The Palikur subsist largely on bow and arrowfishingFishing
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch wild fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping....
, supplemented by hunting
Hunting
Hunting is the practice of pursuing any living thing, usually wildlife, for food, recreation, or trade. In present-day use, the term refers to lawful hunting, as distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species contrary to applicable law...
and horticulture
Horticulture
Horticulture is the industry and science of plant cultivation including the process of preparing soil for the planting of seeds, tubers, or cuttings. Horticulturists work and conduct research in the disciplines of plant propagation and cultivation, crop production, plant breeding and genetic...
. Manioc, roasted, or used for the preparation of flat cakes and beer, is the main cultivated plant. Sweet potatoes, sugarcane
Sugarcane
Sugarcane refers to any of six to 37 species of tall perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum . Native to the warm temperate to tropical regions of South Asia, they have stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar, and measure two to six metres tall...
, peppers
Capsicum
Capsicum is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. Its species are native to the Americas where they have been cultivated for thousands of years, but they are now also cultivated worldwide, used as spices, vegetables, and medicines - and have become are a key element in...
, gourds, cotton
Cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. The botanical purpose of cotton fiber is to aid in seed dispersal....
, and papayas, which the Palikur have adopted from the Europeans, along with mangoes, coffee
Coffee
Coffee is a brewed beverage with a dark,init brooo acidic flavor prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant, colloquially called coffee beans. The beans are found in coffee cherries, which grow on trees cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial Latin America, Southeast Asia,...
, and citrus trees, are also cultivated. Commercial relations between the Palikur and the Europeans began to intensify in the early 18th century; river and forest products were exchanged for tools, harpoons, clothes and glass beads. Until the end of the 19th century the main commercial surplus was roasted manioc flour
Flour
Flour is a powder which is made by grinding cereal grains, other seeds or roots . It is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures, making the availability of adequate supplies of flour a major economic and political issue at various times throughout history...
. In the 1940s and 1950s an intense commerce with alligator
Alligator
An alligator is a crocodilian in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. There are two extant alligator species: the American alligator and the Chinese alligator ....
skins took place, until the alligator population was depleted. The Palikur manufacture objects of wood, bone, feathers, and cotton seed. They are also regionally famous for their basket-ware. Shotguns for hunting
Hunting
Hunting is the practice of pursuing any living thing, usually wildlife, for food, recreation, or trade. In present-day use, the term refers to lawful hunting, as distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species contrary to applicable law...
and harpoons and cotton fishing
Fishing
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch wild fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping....
lines are being widely used at the present. In French Guiana particularly, a growing number of Palikur are engaging in the market-economy.