Linda Ham was the program integration manager in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Space Shuttle Program Office. In this position, she chaired the mission management team for the 2003
Space ShuttleThe Space Shuttle, part of the Space Transportation System , is a spacecraft operated by NASA for orbital human spaceflight missions. It began operations in the 1980s and is scheduled to be retired from service in 2010 after 134 launches...
ColumbiaSpace Shuttle Columbia was the first spaceworthy Space Shuttle in NASA's orbital fleet. First launched on the STS-1 mission, the first of the Space Shuttle program, it flew a total of 27 times before being destroyed during re-entry on February 1, 2003 on the STS-107 mission , killing all seven...
mission
STS-107STS-107 was a space shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle Columbia, launched January 16, 2003. This was a multi-disciplinary microgravity and Earth science research mission with a multitude of international scientific investigations conducted continuously during 16 days in orbit.The...
that ended with the
catastrophic destruction of ColumbiaThe Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003, when the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated over Texas during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, with the loss of all seven crew members, shortly before it was scheduled to conclude its 28th mission, STS-107.The loss of Columbia...
upon its planned reentry into the earth's atmosphere. As a NASA manager, Ham was a U.S. government (public) employee.
Ham's actions and decisions, along with those of several other senior NASA managers involved in mission STS-107, were discussed repeatedly in the official
Columbia Accident Investigation BoardThe Columbia Accident Investigation Board was convened by NASA to investigate the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-107 upon atmospheric re-entry on February 1, 2003. In addition to determining the cause of the accident, the panel also recommended changes that should be made...
report, often in the context of management actions, practices, or culture that contributed to the disaster; however, neither she nor anyone else was individually blamed in the report for the deaths of the seven
Columbia astronauts. After the report's release, Ham was demoted and transferred out of her management position in the space shuttle program.
Early career
Born as Linda Hautzinger, Linda Ham grew up outside Kenosha,
WisconsinWisconsin is one of the fifty U.S. states. Located in the north-central United States, Wisconsin is considered part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the...
. She graduated from the University of Wisconsin–Parkside in 1982 with degrees in mathematics and applied science. Soon after graduation, at twenty-one years old, she applied to and was hired by NASA.
Ham's first position at NASA was as a propulsion systems monitor at the
Lyndon B. Johnson Space CenterThe Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's center for human spaceflight activities. The center consists of a complex of 100 buildings constructed on located in the Bay Area of southeast Houston, Texas...
in Houston,
TexasTexas is the second-largest U.S. state in both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.The name had wide usage among native Americans, meaning "friends" or "allies"...
. This was a "back room" position where she offered real-time specialist advice and support to the Propulsion Engineer, a
flight controllerFlight controllers are personnel who aid in the operations of a space flight, working in Mission Control Centers such as NASA's Mission Control Center, or ESA's Operations Center. Flight controllers sit at computer consoles and use telemetry to monitor in real time various technical aspects of a...
in
Mission ControlA Mission Control Center is an entity that manages aerospace vehicle flights. The MCC is often part of a national aerospace agency or a large aerospace company...
. She was soon promoted to a position in Mission Control itself. In 1990, she married
U.S. NavyThe United States Navy is the sea branch of the U.S. Armed Forces. It is one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. As of 31 December 2008, the U.S. Navy had about 331,682 personnel on active duty and 124,000 in the Navy Reserve. It operates 283 ships in active service and more than...
pilot and NASA astronaut
Kenneth HamKenneth Todd Ham is an American astronaut and a Commander in the U.S. Navy. Ham was selected for NASA's astronaut program in August 1998, while serving as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet lead carrier suitability test pilot. Ham's U.S...
, with whom she had two sons, Ryan and Randy. (This was Linda's second marriage though she had no children from the first marriage.) Later, as director of her section of flight controllers, she became the first female section director in the center's history. As one of her superiors,
Ron DittemoreRon D. Dittemore former shuttle program manager of NASA, is currently the president of ATK Launch Systems Group, formerly known as ATK Thiokol Propulsion, part of Alliant Techsystems , Inc.- Education :...
, later commented, "she had so much talent and her intellect was so strong she could compete with the best in assessing the facts. She rose through the ranks fast at a young age because of her ability to assimilate information."
Flight director
In May 1991, Ham became NASA's first female
flight directorThe term flight director can refer to any one of the following:* the flight controller of a space flight* the flight director of an aviation navigation system...
. The first mission she worked was
STS-45STS-45 was a 1992 spaceflight using Space Shuttle Atlantis.-Crew:-Mission parameters:*Mass:**Orbiter landing with payload: 93,009 kg**Payload: 9,947 kg*Perigee: 282 km*Apogee: 294 km...
, which launched on March 24, 1992. During her first three missions, all of which took place in 1992, she was assigned to the "Orbit 3" shift, later known as "Planning," a quieter shift which generally coincides with the space shuttle crew's sleep cycle. For
STS-58STS-58 shuttle mission of Space Shuttle Columbia launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on October 18, 1993. It was also the last time Columbia would land at Edwards Air Force Base.-Crew:-Mission parameters:*Mass:...
, launched October 18, 1993, she moved up to lead flight director. Ham applied for astronaut training herself, but was refused because of issues with her eyesight.
Ham worked three missions in 1997 and 1998 as the ascent/entry flight director. One of these was
STS-95STS-95 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on October 29, 1998. It was the 25th flight of Discovery and the 92nd mission flown since the start of the Space Shuttle program in April 1981. It was a highly publicized mission due to former Project Mercury...
, on which
United States SenatorThe United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators,...
John GlennJohn Herschel Glenn Jr. is a retired United States Marine Corps pilot, a former astronaut and United States Senator who was the first American and third person to orbit the Earth. Glenn was a Marine Corps fighter pilot before joining NASA's Mercury program, NASA's original astronaut group. He...
(
DThe Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. It is the oldest political party in continuous operation in the United States and it is one of the oldest parties in the world. In the U.S...
-
OhioOhio is a Midwestern state of the United States. The thirty-fourth largest state by area in the U.S., it is the seventh-most populous with nearly 11.5 million residents...
) flew as a payload specialist. A week after the flight landed, Ham was caricatured in a
Saturday Night LiveSaturday Night Live is a weekly late-night sketch comedy and variety show filmed in New York City. It made its debut on October 11, 1975, under a slightly different title. The show features a regular cast of comedy actors, joined by a guest host and musical act...
skit, which featured the deceased sports announcer
Harry CarayHarry Caray Harry Caray Harry Caray (born Harry Christopher Carabina, (March 1, 1914 – February 18, 1998) was an American baseball broadcaster on radio and television. He covered four Major League Baseball teams, beginning with a long tenure calling the games of the St...
as the host of a space and astronomy talk show. Portrayed by
Joan AllenJoan Allen is an American actress. She worked in theatre, television and film during her early career, and achieved recognition for her Broadway debut in Burn This, winning a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play in 1989.She has received three Academy Award nominations;...
, Ham was asked how many survived the mission.
In 1999, Ham again served as lead flight director, this time on the
STS-103STS-103 was a Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission by Space Shuttle Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on December 19, 1999.-Crew:-Mission parameters:*Mass:...
mission. Launched on December 19, 1999, it was technically demanding, involving servicing the gyroscopes of the aging
Hubble Space TelescopeThe Hubble Space Telescope is a space telescope that was carried into orbit by the space shuttle in April 1990. It is named after the American astronomer Edwin Hubble. Although not the first space telescope, the Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile, and is well-known as both a vital...
. "This flight will be a challenge," said Ham before launch, "I can assure you of that." Although challenging, the mission was a success, and all its objectives were met.
Manager
In 2000, Ham was promoted into a position in the Space Shuttle Program Office as a personal assistant to the shuttle program manager. In 2001, she became the shuttle program's integration manager, one of six senior managers responsible for shuttle program operations. In this position, Ham chaired the mission management team (MMT) meetings that oversaw shuttle flights while in orbit and reported directly to the shuttle program manager,
Ron DittemoreRon D. Dittemore former shuttle program manager of NASA, is currently the president of ATK Launch Systems Group, formerly known as ATK Thiokol Propulsion, part of Alliant Techsystems , Inc.- Education :...
. At the time of the
Columbia mission, Ham was also serving as acting manager of shuttle launch integration, which the
Columbia Accident Investigation BoardThe Columbia Accident Investigation Board was convened by NASA to investigate the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-107 upon atmospheric re-entry on February 1, 2003. In addition to determining the cause of the accident, the panel also recommended changes that should be made...
(CAIB) would later call "a dual role promoting a conflict of interest."
Columbia disaster and investigation report
Mission
STS-107STS-107 was a space shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle Columbia, launched January 16, 2003. This was a multi-disciplinary microgravity and Earth science research mission with a multitude of international scientific investigations conducted continuously during 16 days in orbit.The...
, the 113th mission of the space shuttle program and the 28th flight of
Space Shuttle ColumbiaSpace Shuttle Columbia was the first spaceworthy Space Shuttle in NASA's orbital fleet. First launched on the STS-1 mission, the first of the Space Shuttle program, it flew a total of 27 times before being destroyed during re-entry on February 1, 2003 on the STS-107 mission , killing all seven...
, lifted off January 16, 2003, from the John F. Kennedy Space Center in
FloridaFlorida is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the north. It was the 27th state admitted to the United States...
on a 16-day, dedicated science mission. A large piece of insulating foam separated from the shuttle's external tank left bipod ramp area 82 seconds after launch and struck
Columbia on the leading edge of the left wing. Two days later, after reviewing film of the launch and detecting the foam impact on the left wing, NASA engineers made a request to Space Shuttle Program managers for an in-orbit, high-resolution image of the shuttle's left wing to check for damage. The shuttle program managers declined the engineers' request to image the shuttle's wing before reentry. At 9:00:18 a.m. Eastern Standard Time on February 1, 2003, during reentry,
Columbia disintegrated over Texas, killing all seven members of the shuttle's crew. In total there were three requests for imagery of Columbia on-orbit during the 16 days mission, to search for potential damage on the wing, that were rejected, according to the same source. In addition, the Board identified 8 missed opportunities to determine the extent of the damage that got no response from the mission management or no action was taken. The first of these was an inquiry on the day 4 of flight, by the chief engineer of Thermal Protection Systems, if the crew had been asked to inspect the damage, they never received an answer. The opinion of the program managers that the debris strike was only a maintenance-level concern was established early in the mission, making it increasingly difficult for concerned engineers to be heard by those with decision-making authority. As mentioned in the Report:
In the face of Mission managers' low level of concern and desire to get on with the mission ... the engineers found themselves in the unusual position of having to prove that the situation was unsafe - a reversal of the usual requirement to prove that a situation is safe.
The Columbia Accident Investigation Board commissioned to investigate the disaster determined, in a report released August 26, 2003, that the physical cause of the destruction of
Columbia was damage to the shuttle's left wing caused by the foam strike during launch. The board also determined that several organizational and human factors contributed to the disaster. These included:
It was in the context of these organizational factors that the CAIB discussed the role of decisions made by Linda Ham, as well as by other NASA managers, in contributing to the disaster.
According to the book "Comm check..." by Michael Cabbage, Linda Ham squelched requests for external photos to be taken after the requests had been sent by two individual departments at NASA. Engineers in these departments were concerned that the foam strike on the left wing, clearly captured by launch-day video recorded for every launch, had caused more damage than initially thought. Based on computer modeling later proven inadequate, Ham's belief was that the damage was not serious, and that if anything it would merely lengthen the time necessary to refurbish Columbia between missions. Referring to the supposed minor damage in a review meeting, she was quoted as saying that "...there's nothing we can do about it anyway." Ham decided to quash the request for high-resolution imaging of the shuttle, based on her belief that the damage was too minor to be of consequence.
Ham's on-the-job persona was reported to be somewhat brusque, and she was perceived by some below her in the chain of command as being occasionally less than willing to embrace dissenting points of view. This was part of a larger cultural problem within NASA which was addressed at length by the CAIB. Even if the hole in the left wing had been discovered immediately, according to flight director
LeRoy CainLeroy E. Cain is a NASA engineer. Formerly a flight director, he became the manager of Space Shuttle Launch Integration at Kennedy Space Center in November 2005....
, (it was assumed that) there were few if any realistic options to either circumvent the damage or launch a rescue mission, though two realistic options were worked out later. Ham was subjected to intense criticism after the accident.
Former Flight Director
Wayne HaleN. Wayne Hale Jr. is a NASA engineer. A former flight director and space shuttle program manager, Hale now serves as NASA's Deputy Associate Administrator for Strategic Partnerships....
worked outside of proper NASA channels in an effort to get imaging of the damage, even though Ham had the authority over this decision. In the aftermath of the mishap, Hale got promoted to Space Shuttle Program Manager and then on to NASA Headquarters and Ham was dealt her demotion.
Aftermath of Columbia investigation
On July 3, 2003, NASA's new shuttle program manager, William Parsons, reassigned three senior engineers who had been involved in the
Columbia disaster, including Linda Ham. NASA administrator
Sean O'KeefeSean O'Keefe is a former Administrator of NASA, leading the space agency from December 2001 to February 2005. His tenure was marked by a mix of triumph and tragedy, ranging from the tremendous success of the Mars Exploration Rovers to the accident.On February 21, 2005, after resigning from NASA,...
took the opportunity to praise Ham publicly, saying that the reassignment was "no reflection, in my judgment, on the competence or diligence or commitment or professionalism of anybody...." According to the
Washington Post, "O'Keefe said she is so talented there is going to be a 'bidding war' for her among NASA facilities."
Ham's new position was as assistant to Frank Benz, director of engineering at the Johnson Space Center. However, she stayed in the job for less than six months. Her marriage to
Kenneth HamKenneth Todd Ham is an American astronaut and a Commander in the U.S. Navy. Ham was selected for NASA's astronaut program in August 1998, while serving as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet lead carrier suitability test pilot. Ham's U.S...
also ended in divorce during this same period. In December 2003, she took a temporary position on secondment from NASA at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in
Golden, ColoradoThe historic City of Golden is a Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat of Jefferson County, Colorado, United States. Golden lies along Clear Creek at the eastern edge of the foothills of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. Founded during the Pike's Peak Gold Rush on 16 June 1859, the...
, where she worked on federal plans for the storage and distribution of hydrogen fuel.
Linda Ham returned to the Johnson Space Center where she recently held the job as technical director for the Constellation Program Office where she was involved in the major decisions involving
the Ares,
OrionOrion is a spacecraft design currently under development by the United States space agency NASA. Each Orion spacecraft will carry a crew of four to six astronauts. The spacecraft is designed to be launched by the Ares I, a launch vehicle, also currently under development...
and Altair vehicles.
She has two children with former husband, astronaut
Kenneth HamKenneth Todd Ham is an American astronaut and a Commander in the U.S. Navy. Ham was selected for NASA's astronaut program in August 1998, while serving as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet lead carrier suitability test pilot. Ham's U.S...
(who later married Michelle Lucas of Hobart, Indiana).
Web
Linda Ham was the program integration manager in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Space Shuttle Program Office. In this position, she chaired the mission management team for the 2003
Space ShuttleThe Space Shuttle, part of the Space Transportation System , is a spacecraft operated by NASA for orbital human spaceflight missions. It began operations in the 1980s and is scheduled to be retired from service in 2010 after 134 launches...
ColumbiaSpace Shuttle Columbia was the first spaceworthy Space Shuttle in NASA's orbital fleet. First launched on the STS-1 mission, the first of the Space Shuttle program, it flew a total of 27 times before being destroyed during re-entry on February 1, 2003 on the STS-107 mission , killing all seven...
mission
STS-107STS-107 was a space shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle Columbia, launched January 16, 2003. This was a multi-disciplinary microgravity and Earth science research mission with a multitude of international scientific investigations conducted continuously during 16 days in orbit.The...
that ended with the
catastrophic destruction of ColumbiaThe Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003, when the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated over Texas during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, with the loss of all seven crew members, shortly before it was scheduled to conclude its 28th mission, STS-107.The loss of Columbia...
upon its planned reentry into the earth's atmosphere. As a NASA manager, Ham was a U.S. government (public) employee.
Ham's actions and decisions, along with those of several other senior NASA managers involved in mission STS-107, were discussed repeatedly in the official
Columbia Accident Investigation BoardThe Columbia Accident Investigation Board was convened by NASA to investigate the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-107 upon atmospheric re-entry on February 1, 2003. In addition to determining the cause of the accident, the panel also recommended changes that should be made...
report, often in the context of management actions, practices, or culture that contributed to the disaster; however, neither she nor anyone else was individually blamed in the report for the deaths of the seven
Columbia astronauts. After the report's release, Ham was demoted and transferred out of her management position in the space shuttle program.
Early career
Born as Linda Hautzinger, Linda Ham grew up outside Kenosha,
WisconsinWisconsin is one of the fifty U.S. states. Located in the north-central United States, Wisconsin is considered part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the...
. She graduated from the University of Wisconsin–Parkside in 1982 with degrees in mathematics and applied science. Soon after graduation, at twenty-one years old, she applied to and was hired by NASA.
Ham's first position at NASA was as a propulsion systems monitor at the
Lyndon B. Johnson Space CenterThe Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's center for human spaceflight activities. The center consists of a complex of 100 buildings constructed on located in the Bay Area of southeast Houston, Texas...
in Houston,
TexasTexas is the second-largest U.S. state in both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.The name had wide usage among native Americans, meaning "friends" or "allies"...
. This was a "back room" position where she offered real-time specialist advice and support to the Propulsion Engineer, a
flight controllerFlight controllers are personnel who aid in the operations of a space flight, working in Mission Control Centers such as NASA's Mission Control Center, or ESA's Operations Center. Flight controllers sit at computer consoles and use telemetry to monitor in real time various technical aspects of a...
in
Mission ControlA Mission Control Center is an entity that manages aerospace vehicle flights. The MCC is often part of a national aerospace agency or a large aerospace company...
. She was soon promoted to a position in Mission Control itself. In 1990, she married
U.S. NavyThe United States Navy is the sea branch of the U.S. Armed Forces. It is one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. As of 31 December 2008, the U.S. Navy had about 331,682 personnel on active duty and 124,000 in the Navy Reserve. It operates 283 ships in active service and more than...
pilot and NASA astronaut
Kenneth HamKenneth Todd Ham is an American astronaut and a Commander in the U.S. Navy. Ham was selected for NASA's astronaut program in August 1998, while serving as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet lead carrier suitability test pilot. Ham's U.S...
, with whom she had two sons, Ryan and Randy. (This was Linda's second marriage though she had no children from the first marriage.) Later, as director of her section of flight controllers, she became the first female section director in the center's history. As one of her superiors,
Ron DittemoreRon D. Dittemore former shuttle program manager of NASA, is currently the president of ATK Launch Systems Group, formerly known as ATK Thiokol Propulsion, part of Alliant Techsystems , Inc.- Education :...
, later commented, "she had so much talent and her intellect was so strong she could compete with the best in assessing the facts. She rose through the ranks fast at a young age because of her ability to assimilate information."
Flight director
In May 1991, Ham became NASA's first female
flight directorThe term flight director can refer to any one of the following:* the flight controller of a space flight* the flight director of an aviation navigation system...
. The first mission she worked was
STS-45STS-45 was a 1992 spaceflight using Space Shuttle Atlantis.-Crew:-Mission parameters:*Mass:**Orbiter landing with payload: 93,009 kg**Payload: 9,947 kg*Perigee: 282 km*Apogee: 294 km...
, which launched on March 24, 1992. During her first three missions, all of which took place in 1992, she was assigned to the "Orbit 3" shift, later known as "Planning," a quieter shift which generally coincides with the space shuttle crew's sleep cycle. For
STS-58STS-58 shuttle mission of Space Shuttle Columbia launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on October 18, 1993. It was also the last time Columbia would land at Edwards Air Force Base.-Crew:-Mission parameters:*Mass:...
, launched October 18, 1993, she moved up to lead flight director. Ham applied for astronaut training herself, but was refused because of issues with her eyesight.
Ham worked three missions in 1997 and 1998 as the ascent/entry flight director. One of these was
STS-95STS-95 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on October 29, 1998. It was the 25th flight of Discovery and the 92nd mission flown since the start of the Space Shuttle program in April 1981. It was a highly publicized mission due to former Project Mercury...
, on which
United States SenatorThe United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators,...
John GlennJohn Herschel Glenn Jr. is a retired United States Marine Corps pilot, a former astronaut and United States Senator who was the first American and third person to orbit the Earth. Glenn was a Marine Corps fighter pilot before joining NASA's Mercury program, NASA's original astronaut group. He...
(
DThe Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. It is the oldest political party in continuous operation in the United States and it is one of the oldest parties in the world. In the U.S...
-
OhioOhio is a Midwestern state of the United States. The thirty-fourth largest state by area in the U.S., it is the seventh-most populous with nearly 11.5 million residents...
) flew as a payload specialist. A week after the flight landed, Ham was caricatured in a
Saturday Night LiveSaturday Night Live is a weekly late-night sketch comedy and variety show filmed in New York City. It made its debut on October 11, 1975, under a slightly different title. The show features a regular cast of comedy actors, joined by a guest host and musical act...
skit, which featured the deceased sports announcer
Harry CarayHarry Caray Harry Caray Harry Caray (born Harry Christopher Carabina, (March 1, 1914 – February 18, 1998) was an American baseball broadcaster on radio and television. He covered four Major League Baseball teams, beginning with a long tenure calling the games of the St...
as the host of a space and astronomy talk show. Portrayed by
Joan AllenJoan Allen is an American actress. She worked in theatre, television and film during her early career, and achieved recognition for her Broadway debut in Burn This, winning a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play in 1989.She has received three Academy Award nominations;...
, Ham was asked how many survived the mission.
In 1999, Ham again served as lead flight director, this time on the
STS-103STS-103 was a Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission by Space Shuttle Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on December 19, 1999.-Crew:-Mission parameters:*Mass:...
mission. Launched on December 19, 1999, it was technically demanding, involving servicing the gyroscopes of the aging
Hubble Space TelescopeThe Hubble Space Telescope is a space telescope that was carried into orbit by the space shuttle in April 1990. It is named after the American astronomer Edwin Hubble. Although not the first space telescope, the Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile, and is well-known as both a vital...
. "This flight will be a challenge," said Ham before launch, "I can assure you of that." Although challenging, the mission was a success, and all its objectives were met.
Manager
In 2000, Ham was promoted into a position in the Space Shuttle Program Office as a personal assistant to the shuttle program manager. In 2001, she became the shuttle program's integration manager, one of six senior managers responsible for shuttle program operations. In this position, Ham chaired the mission management team (MMT) meetings that oversaw shuttle flights while in orbit and reported directly to the shuttle program manager,
Ron DittemoreRon D. Dittemore former shuttle program manager of NASA, is currently the president of ATK Launch Systems Group, formerly known as ATK Thiokol Propulsion, part of Alliant Techsystems , Inc.- Education :...
. At the time of the
Columbia mission, Ham was also serving as acting manager of shuttle launch integration, which the
Columbia Accident Investigation BoardThe Columbia Accident Investigation Board was convened by NASA to investigate the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-107 upon atmospheric re-entry on February 1, 2003. In addition to determining the cause of the accident, the panel also recommended changes that should be made...
(CAIB) would later call "a dual role promoting a conflict of interest."
Columbia disaster and investigation report
Mission
STS-107STS-107 was a space shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle Columbia, launched January 16, 2003. This was a multi-disciplinary microgravity and Earth science research mission with a multitude of international scientific investigations conducted continuously during 16 days in orbit.The...
, the 113th mission of the space shuttle program and the 28th flight of
Space Shuttle ColumbiaSpace Shuttle Columbia was the first spaceworthy Space Shuttle in NASA's orbital fleet. First launched on the STS-1 mission, the first of the Space Shuttle program, it flew a total of 27 times before being destroyed during re-entry on February 1, 2003 on the STS-107 mission , killing all seven...
, lifted off January 16, 2003, from the John F. Kennedy Space Center in
FloridaFlorida is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the north. It was the 27th state admitted to the United States...
on a 16-day, dedicated science mission. A large piece of insulating foam separated from the shuttle's external tank left bipod ramp area 82 seconds after launch and struck
Columbia on the leading edge of the left wing. Two days later, after reviewing film of the launch and detecting the foam impact on the left wing, NASA engineers made a request to Space Shuttle Program managers for an in-orbit, high-resolution image of the shuttle's left wing to check for damage. The shuttle program managers declined the engineers' request to image the shuttle's wing before reentry. At 9:00:18 a.m. Eastern Standard Time on February 1, 2003, during reentry,
Columbia disintegrated over Texas, killing all seven members of the shuttle's crew. In total there were three requests for imagery of Columbia on-orbit during the 16 days mission, to search for potential damage on the wing, that were rejected, according to the same source. In addition, the Board identified 8 missed opportunities to determine the extent of the damage that got no response from the mission management or no action was taken. The first of these was an inquiry on the day 4 of flight, by the chief engineer of Thermal Protection Systems, if the crew had been asked to inspect the damage, they never received an answer. The opinion of the program managers that the debris strike was only a maintenance-level concern was established early in the mission, making it increasingly difficult for concerned engineers to be heard by those with decision-making authority. As mentioned in the Report:
In the face of Mission managers' low level of concern and desire to get on with the mission ... the engineers found themselves in the unusual position of having to prove that the situation was unsafe - a reversal of the usual requirement to prove that a situation is safe.
The Columbia Accident Investigation Board commissioned to investigate the disaster determined, in a report released August 26, 2003, that the physical cause of the destruction of
Columbia was damage to the shuttle's left wing caused by the foam strike during launch. The board also determined that several organizational and human factors contributed to the disaster. These included:
It was in the context of these organizational factors that the CAIB discussed the role of decisions made by Linda Ham, as well as by other NASA managers, in contributing to the disaster.
According to the book "Comm check..." by Michael Cabbage, Linda Ham squelched requests for external photos to be taken after the requests had been sent by two individual departments at NASA. Engineers in these departments were concerned that the foam strike on the left wing, clearly captured by launch-day video recorded for every launch, had caused more damage than initially thought. Based on computer modeling later proven inadequate, Ham's belief was that the damage was not serious, and that if anything it would merely lengthen the time necessary to refurbish Columbia between missions. Referring to the supposed minor damage in a review meeting, she was quoted as saying that "...there's nothing we can do about it anyway." Ham decided to quash the request for high-resolution imaging of the shuttle, based on her belief that the damage was too minor to be of consequence.
Ham's on-the-job persona was reported to be somewhat brusque, and she was perceived by some below her in the chain of command as being occasionally less than willing to embrace dissenting points of view. This was part of a larger cultural problem within NASA which was addressed at length by the CAIB. Even if the hole in the left wing had been discovered immediately, according to flight director
LeRoy CainLeroy E. Cain is a NASA engineer. Formerly a flight director, he became the manager of Space Shuttle Launch Integration at Kennedy Space Center in November 2005....
, (it was assumed that) there were few if any realistic options to either circumvent the damage or launch a rescue mission, though two realistic options were worked out later. Ham was subjected to intense criticism after the accident.
Former Flight Director
Wayne HaleN. Wayne Hale Jr. is a NASA engineer. A former flight director and space shuttle program manager, Hale now serves as NASA's Deputy Associate Administrator for Strategic Partnerships....
worked outside of proper NASA channels in an effort to get imaging of the damage, even though Ham had the authority over this decision. In the aftermath of the mishap, Hale got promoted to Space Shuttle Program Manager and then on to NASA Headquarters and Ham was dealt her demotion.
Aftermath of Columbia investigation
On July 3, 2003, NASA's new shuttle program manager, William Parsons, reassigned three senior engineers who had been involved in the
Columbia disaster, including Linda Ham. NASA administrator
Sean O'KeefeSean O'Keefe is a former Administrator of NASA, leading the space agency from December 2001 to February 2005. His tenure was marked by a mix of triumph and tragedy, ranging from the tremendous success of the Mars Exploration Rovers to the accident.On February 21, 2005, after resigning from NASA,...
took the opportunity to praise Ham publicly, saying that the reassignment was "no reflection, in my judgment, on the competence or diligence or commitment or professionalism of anybody...." According to the
Washington Post, "O'Keefe said she is so talented there is going to be a 'bidding war' for her among NASA facilities."
Ham's new position was as assistant to Frank Benz, director of engineering at the Johnson Space Center. However, she stayed in the job for less than six months. Her marriage to
Kenneth HamKenneth Todd Ham is an American astronaut and a Commander in the U.S. Navy. Ham was selected for NASA's astronaut program in August 1998, while serving as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet lead carrier suitability test pilot. Ham's U.S...
also ended in divorce during this same period. In December 2003, she took a temporary position on secondment from NASA at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in
Golden, ColoradoThe historic City of Golden is a Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat of Jefferson County, Colorado, United States. Golden lies along Clear Creek at the eastern edge of the foothills of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. Founded during the Pike's Peak Gold Rush on 16 June 1859, the...
, where she worked on federal plans for the storage and distribution of hydrogen fuel.
Linda Ham returned to the Johnson Space Center where she recently held the job as technical director for the Constellation Program Office where she was involved in the major decisions involving
the Ares,
OrionOrion is a spacecraft design currently under development by the United States space agency NASA. Each Orion spacecraft will carry a crew of four to six astronauts. The spacecraft is designed to be launched by the Ares I, a launch vehicle, also currently under development...
and Altair vehicles.
She has two children with former husband, astronaut
Kenneth HamKenneth Todd Ham is an American astronaut and a Commander in the U.S. Navy. Ham was selected for NASA's astronaut program in August 1998, while serving as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet lead carrier suitability test pilot. Ham's U.S...
(who later married Michelle Lucas of Hobart, Indiana).
Web
Linda Ham was the program integration manager in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Space Shuttle Program Office. In this position, she chaired the mission management team for the 2003
Space ShuttleThe Space Shuttle, part of the Space Transportation System , is a spacecraft operated by NASA for orbital human spaceflight missions. It began operations in the 1980s and is scheduled to be retired from service in 2010 after 134 launches...
ColumbiaSpace Shuttle Columbia was the first spaceworthy Space Shuttle in NASA's orbital fleet. First launched on the STS-1 mission, the first of the Space Shuttle program, it flew a total of 27 times before being destroyed during re-entry on February 1, 2003 on the STS-107 mission , killing all seven...
mission
STS-107STS-107 was a space shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle Columbia, launched January 16, 2003. This was a multi-disciplinary microgravity and Earth science research mission with a multitude of international scientific investigations conducted continuously during 16 days in orbit.The...
that ended with the
catastrophic destruction of ColumbiaThe Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003, when the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated over Texas during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, with the loss of all seven crew members, shortly before it was scheduled to conclude its 28th mission, STS-107.The loss of Columbia...
upon its planned reentry into the earth's atmosphere. As a NASA manager, Ham was a U.S. government (public) employee.
Ham's actions and decisions, along with those of several other senior NASA managers involved in mission STS-107, were discussed repeatedly in the official
Columbia Accident Investigation BoardThe Columbia Accident Investigation Board was convened by NASA to investigate the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-107 upon atmospheric re-entry on February 1, 2003. In addition to determining the cause of the accident, the panel also recommended changes that should be made...
report, often in the context of management actions, practices, or culture that contributed to the disaster; however, neither she nor anyone else was individually blamed in the report for the deaths of the seven
Columbia astronauts. After the report's release, Ham was demoted and transferred out of her management position in the space shuttle program.
Early career
Born as Linda Hautzinger, Linda Ham grew up outside Kenosha,
WisconsinWisconsin is one of the fifty U.S. states. Located in the north-central United States, Wisconsin is considered part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the...
. She graduated from the University of Wisconsin–Parkside in 1982 with degrees in mathematics and applied science. Soon after graduation, at twenty-one years old, she applied to and was hired by NASA.
Ham's first position at NASA was as a propulsion systems monitor at the
Lyndon B. Johnson Space CenterThe Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's center for human spaceflight activities. The center consists of a complex of 100 buildings constructed on located in the Bay Area of southeast Houston, Texas...
in Houston,
TexasTexas is the second-largest U.S. state in both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.The name had wide usage among native Americans, meaning "friends" or "allies"...
. This was a "back room" position where she offered real-time specialist advice and support to the Propulsion Engineer, a
flight controllerFlight controllers are personnel who aid in the operations of a space flight, working in Mission Control Centers such as NASA's Mission Control Center, or ESA's Operations Center. Flight controllers sit at computer consoles and use telemetry to monitor in real time various technical aspects of a...
in
Mission ControlA Mission Control Center is an entity that manages aerospace vehicle flights. The MCC is often part of a national aerospace agency or a large aerospace company...
. She was soon promoted to a position in Mission Control itself. In 1990, she married
U.S. NavyThe United States Navy is the sea branch of the U.S. Armed Forces. It is one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. As of 31 December 2008, the U.S. Navy had about 331,682 personnel on active duty and 124,000 in the Navy Reserve. It operates 283 ships in active service and more than...
pilot and NASA astronaut
Kenneth HamKenneth Todd Ham is an American astronaut and a Commander in the U.S. Navy. Ham was selected for NASA's astronaut program in August 1998, while serving as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet lead carrier suitability test pilot. Ham's U.S...
, with whom she had two sons, Ryan and Randy. (This was Linda's second marriage though she had no children from the first marriage.) Later, as director of her section of flight controllers, she became the first female section director in the center's history. As one of her superiors,
Ron DittemoreRon D. Dittemore former shuttle program manager of NASA, is currently the president of ATK Launch Systems Group, formerly known as ATK Thiokol Propulsion, part of Alliant Techsystems , Inc.- Education :...
, later commented, "she had so much talent and her intellect was so strong she could compete with the best in assessing the facts. She rose through the ranks fast at a young age because of her ability to assimilate information."
Flight director
In May 1991, Ham became NASA's first female
flight directorThe term flight director can refer to any one of the following:* the flight controller of a space flight* the flight director of an aviation navigation system...
. The first mission she worked was
STS-45STS-45 was a 1992 spaceflight using Space Shuttle Atlantis.-Crew:-Mission parameters:*Mass:**Orbiter landing with payload: 93,009 kg**Payload: 9,947 kg*Perigee: 282 km*Apogee: 294 km...
, which launched on March 24, 1992. During her first three missions, all of which took place in 1992, she was assigned to the "Orbit 3" shift, later known as "Planning," a quieter shift which generally coincides with the space shuttle crew's sleep cycle. For
STS-58STS-58 shuttle mission of Space Shuttle Columbia launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on October 18, 1993. It was also the last time Columbia would land at Edwards Air Force Base.-Crew:-Mission parameters:*Mass:...
, launched October 18, 1993, she moved up to lead flight director. Ham applied for astronaut training herself, but was refused because of issues with her eyesight.
Ham worked three missions in 1997 and 1998 as the ascent/entry flight director. One of these was
STS-95STS-95 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on October 29, 1998. It was the 25th flight of Discovery and the 92nd mission flown since the start of the Space Shuttle program in April 1981. It was a highly publicized mission due to former Project Mercury...
, on which
United States SenatorThe United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators,...
John GlennJohn Herschel Glenn Jr. is a retired United States Marine Corps pilot, a former astronaut and United States Senator who was the first American and third person to orbit the Earth. Glenn was a Marine Corps fighter pilot before joining NASA's Mercury program, NASA's original astronaut group. He...
(
DThe Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. It is the oldest political party in continuous operation in the United States and it is one of the oldest parties in the world. In the U.S...
-
OhioOhio is a Midwestern state of the United States. The thirty-fourth largest state by area in the U.S., it is the seventh-most populous with nearly 11.5 million residents...
) flew as a payload specialist. A week after the flight landed, Ham was caricatured in a
Saturday Night LiveSaturday Night Live is a weekly late-night sketch comedy and variety show filmed in New York City. It made its debut on October 11, 1975, under a slightly different title. The show features a regular cast of comedy actors, joined by a guest host and musical act...
skit, which featured the deceased sports announcer
Harry CarayHarry Caray Harry Caray Harry Caray (born Harry Christopher Carabina, (March 1, 1914 – February 18, 1998) was an American baseball broadcaster on radio and television. He covered four Major League Baseball teams, beginning with a long tenure calling the games of the St...
as the host of a space and astronomy talk show. Portrayed by
Joan AllenJoan Allen is an American actress. She worked in theatre, television and film during her early career, and achieved recognition for her Broadway debut in Burn This, winning a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play in 1989.She has received three Academy Award nominations;...
, Ham was asked how many survived the mission.
In 1999, Ham again served as lead flight director, this time on the
STS-103STS-103 was a Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission by Space Shuttle Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on December 19, 1999.-Crew:-Mission parameters:*Mass:...
mission. Launched on December 19, 1999, it was technically demanding, involving servicing the gyroscopes of the aging
Hubble Space TelescopeThe Hubble Space Telescope is a space telescope that was carried into orbit by the space shuttle in April 1990. It is named after the American astronomer Edwin Hubble. Although not the first space telescope, the Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile, and is well-known as both a vital...
. "This flight will be a challenge," said Ham before launch, "I can assure you of that." Although challenging, the mission was a success, and all its objectives were met.
Manager
In 2000, Ham was promoted into a position in the Space Shuttle Program Office as a personal assistant to the shuttle program manager. In 2001, she became the shuttle program's integration manager, one of six senior managers responsible for shuttle program operations. In this position, Ham chaired the mission management team (MMT) meetings that oversaw shuttle flights while in orbit and reported directly to the shuttle program manager,
Ron DittemoreRon D. Dittemore former shuttle program manager of NASA, is currently the president of ATK Launch Systems Group, formerly known as ATK Thiokol Propulsion, part of Alliant Techsystems , Inc.- Education :...
. At the time of the
Columbia mission, Ham was also serving as acting manager of shuttle launch integration, which the
Columbia Accident Investigation BoardThe Columbia Accident Investigation Board was convened by NASA to investigate the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-107 upon atmospheric re-entry on February 1, 2003. In addition to determining the cause of the accident, the panel also recommended changes that should be made...
(CAIB) would later call "a dual role promoting a conflict of interest."
Columbia disaster and investigation report
Mission
STS-107STS-107 was a space shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle Columbia, launched January 16, 2003. This was a multi-disciplinary microgravity and Earth science research mission with a multitude of international scientific investigations conducted continuously during 16 days in orbit.The...
, the 113th mission of the space shuttle program and the 28th flight of
Space Shuttle ColumbiaSpace Shuttle Columbia was the first spaceworthy Space Shuttle in NASA's orbital fleet. First launched on the STS-1 mission, the first of the Space Shuttle program, it flew a total of 27 times before being destroyed during re-entry on February 1, 2003 on the STS-107 mission , killing all seven...
, lifted off January 16, 2003, from the John F. Kennedy Space Center in
FloridaFlorida is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the north. It was the 27th state admitted to the United States...
on a 16-day, dedicated science mission. A large piece of insulating foam separated from the shuttle's external tank left bipod ramp area 82 seconds after launch and struck
Columbia on the leading edge of the left wing. Two days later, after reviewing film of the launch and detecting the foam impact on the left wing, NASA engineers made a request to Space Shuttle Program managers for an in-orbit, high-resolution image of the shuttle's left wing to check for damage. The shuttle program managers declined the engineers' request to image the shuttle's wing before reentry. At 9:00:18 a.m. Eastern Standard Time on February 1, 2003, during reentry,
Columbia disintegrated over Texas, killing all seven members of the shuttle's crew. In total there were three requests for imagery of Columbia on-orbit during the 16 days mission, to search for potential damage on the wing, that were rejected, according to the same source. In addition, the Board identified 8 missed opportunities to determine the extent of the damage that got no response from the mission management or no action was taken. The first of these was an inquiry on the day 4 of flight, by the chief engineer of Thermal Protection Systems, if the crew had been asked to inspect the damage, they never received an answer. The opinion of the program managers that the debris strike was only a maintenance-level concern was established early in the mission, making it increasingly difficult for concerned engineers to be heard by those with decision-making authority. As mentioned in the Report:
In the face of Mission managers' low level of concern and desire to get on with the mission ... the engineers found themselves in the unusual position of having to prove that the situation was unsafe - a reversal of the usual requirement to prove that a situation is safe.
The Columbia Accident Investigation Board commissioned to investigate the disaster determined, in a report released August 26, 2003, that the physical cause of the destruction of
Columbia was damage to the shuttle's left wing caused by the foam strike during launch. The board also determined that several organizational and human factors contributed to the disaster. These included:
It was in the context of these organizational factors that the CAIB discussed the role of decisions made by Linda Ham, as well as by other NASA managers, in contributing to the disaster.
According to the book "Comm check..." by Michael Cabbage, Linda Ham squelched requests for external photos to be taken after the requests had been sent by two individual departments at NASA. Engineers in these departments were concerned that the foam strike on the left wing, clearly captured by launch-day video recorded for every launch, had caused more damage than initially thought. Based on computer modeling later proven inadequate, Ham's belief was that the damage was not serious, and that if anything it would merely lengthen the time necessary to refurbish Columbia between missions. Referring to the supposed minor damage in a review meeting, she was quoted as saying that "...there's nothing we can do about it anyway." Ham decided to quash the request for high-resolution imaging of the shuttle, based on her belief that the damage was too minor to be of consequence.
Ham's on-the-job persona was reported to be somewhat brusque, and she was perceived by some below her in the chain of command as being occasionally less than willing to embrace dissenting points of view. This was part of a larger cultural problem within NASA which was addressed at length by the CAIB. Even if the hole in the left wing had been discovered immediately, according to flight director
LeRoy CainLeroy E. Cain is a NASA engineer. Formerly a flight director, he became the manager of Space Shuttle Launch Integration at Kennedy Space Center in November 2005....
, (it was assumed that) there were few if any realistic options to either circumvent the damage or launch a rescue mission, though two realistic options were worked out later. Ham was subjected to intense criticism after the accident.
Former Flight Director
Wayne HaleN. Wayne Hale Jr. is a NASA engineer. A former flight director and space shuttle program manager, Hale now serves as NASA's Deputy Associate Administrator for Strategic Partnerships....
worked outside of proper NASA channels in an effort to get imaging of the damage, even though Ham had the authority over this decision. In the aftermath of the mishap, Hale got promoted to Space Shuttle Program Manager and then on to NASA Headquarters and Ham was dealt her demotion.
Aftermath of Columbia investigation
On July 3, 2003, NASA's new shuttle program manager, William Parsons, reassigned three senior engineers who had been involved in the
Columbia disaster, including Linda Ham. NASA administrator
Sean O'KeefeSean O'Keefe is a former Administrator of NASA, leading the space agency from December 2001 to February 2005. His tenure was marked by a mix of triumph and tragedy, ranging from the tremendous success of the Mars Exploration Rovers to the accident.On February 21, 2005, after resigning from NASA,...
took the opportunity to praise Ham publicly, saying that the reassignment was "no reflection, in my judgment, on the competence or diligence or commitment or professionalism of anybody...." According to the
Washington Post, "O'Keefe said she is so talented there is going to be a 'bidding war' for her among NASA facilities."
Ham's new position was as assistant to Frank Benz, director of engineering at the Johnson Space Center. However, she stayed in the job for less than six months. Her marriage to
Kenneth HamKenneth Todd Ham is an American astronaut and a Commander in the U.S. Navy. Ham was selected for NASA's astronaut program in August 1998, while serving as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet lead carrier suitability test pilot. Ham's U.S...
also ended in divorce during this same period. In December 2003, she took a temporary position on secondment from NASA at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in
Golden, ColoradoThe historic City of Golden is a Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat of Jefferson County, Colorado, United States. Golden lies along Clear Creek at the eastern edge of the foothills of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. Founded during the Pike's Peak Gold Rush on 16 June 1859, the...
, where she worked on federal plans for the storage and distribution of hydrogen fuel.
Linda Ham returned to the Johnson Space Center where she recently held the job as technical director for the Constellation Program Office where she was involved in the major decisions involving
the Ares,
OrionOrion is a spacecraft design currently under development by the United States space agency NASA. Each Orion spacecraft will carry a crew of four to six astronauts. The spacecraft is designed to be launched by the Ares I, a launch vehicle, also currently under development...
and Altair vehicles.
She has two children with former husband, astronaut
Kenneth HamKenneth Todd Ham is an American astronaut and a Commander in the U.S. Navy. Ham was selected for NASA's astronaut program in August 1998, while serving as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet lead carrier suitability test pilot. Ham's U.S...
(who later married Michelle Lucas of Hobart, Indiana).
Web
- Long article on Ham with biographical information.-Article discussing NASA management and communication problems that contributed to
Columbia disaster.- Article about press conference/roundtable with Linda Ham, Phil Engelaug, and LeRoy Cain upon release of accident investigation report.- Article discussing engineers futile efforts to ask NASA managers to look into possible damage to
Columbia from falling foam during liftoff.- Eight chapter analysis of
Columbia disaster.-
Atlantic Monthly Online requires a subscription to access this in-depth article about the disaster. However, in the U.S., the article can usually be obtained at the local public library.
- Transcript of video interview with Linda Ham and others prior to Space Shuttle Discovery mission.- Critical analysis of NASA managers involved in roundtable discussion with press on July 23, 2003.