Kodachrome
Encyclopedia
Kodachrome is the trademarked brand name of a type of color reversal film that was manufactured by Eastman Kodak
from 1935 to 2009.
method, in contrast to earlier additive "screenplate" methods such as Autochrome
and Dufaycolor
, and was the oldest surviving brand of color film for many years.
Kodachrome film was manufactured for 74 years in various formats to suit still
and motion picture
cameras, including 8 mm
, Super 8
, 16 mm
, and 35 mm
for movies and 35 mm
, 120
, 110
, 126
, 828
, and large format
for still photography. For many years, it was used for professional color photography, especially for images intended for publication in print media. The film was sold with processing included in the purchase price except in the United States, where a 1954 legal ruling ended that practice.
Kodachrome is appreciated in the archival and professional market for its dark-storage longevity. Because of these qualities, Kodachrome was used by professional photographers like Steve McCurry
, Peter Guttman
and Alex Webb. McCurry used Kodachrome for his well-known 1984 portrait of Sharbat Gula
, the "Afghan Girl" for the National Geographic magazine. It was used by Walton Sound and Film Services in the UK in 1953 for the official 16 mm film of the coronation of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second
. Prints for sale to the public were also produced using Kodachrome.
Competing slide films, such as Fujichrome and Kodak Ektachrome
, use the E-6 process
which is simpler, less expensive, more quickly processed and more widely available; this eroded Kodachrome's market share as the quality of competing films improved during the 1980s and 1990s. As digital photography
reduced the demand for all varieties of film in the first decade of the 21st century, Kodachrome sales further declined. On 22 June 2009, Kodak announced the end of Kodachrome production, citing declining demand.
During its heyday, many Kodak and independent laboratories processed Kodachrome; by 2010, one Kodak-certified facility remained: Dwayne's Photo
in Parsons, Kansas
. On 14 July 2010, it was announced that the last roll of Kodachrome to be manufactured was developed by Dwayne's for photographer Steve McCurry
on assignment for National Geographic
. The 36 slides will be permanently housed at the Eastman House
in Rochester, New York
and most of the pictures have been published on the Internet by Vanity Fair
magazine.
methods of color photography
, such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor
, were the first practical color processes; however, these had disadvantages. A réseau filter was made from discrete color elements that were visible upon enlargement. The finished transparencies absorbed between 70% and 80% of light upon projection, requiring very bright projection lamps, especially for large projections. Using the subtractive
method, these disadvantages could be avoided.
Kodachrome was invented in the early 1930s by two professional musicians, Leopold Godowsky, Jr.
and Leopold Mannes
; hence the comment that "Kodachrome was made by God and Man". It was first sold in 1935 as 16 mm movie film. In 1936 it was made available in 8 mm
movie film, and slide film in both 35mm
and 828
formats. Kodachrome would eventually be produced in a wide variety of film formats including 120 and 4x5, and in ISO/ASA values ranging from 8 to 200.
Kodachrome was the subject of Paul Simon
's song "Kodachrome"
, and Kodachrome Basin State Park
in Utah was named after it, becoming the only park named for a brand of film.
and negative
color films with dye couplers incorporated into the emulsion layers, Kodachrome had none. The dye couplers were added during processing. Without couplers, the emulsion layers were thinner, causing less light scattering and allowing the film to record a sharper image. A Kodachrome slide is discernible by an easily-visible relief image on the emulsion side of the film. Kodachrome has a dynamic range of around 8 stops, or 3.6-3.8D.
, some professionals continued to prefer Kodachrome, and maintain that it still has certain advantages over digital:
, is inferior to E-6 process
slide films; Kodachrome's fade time under projection is about one hour, compared to Fujichrome's two and a half hours.
Unprocessed Kodachrome may survive long periods between exposure and processing. In one case, several rolls were exposed and then lost in a Canadian forest; upon discovery 19 years later they were processed and the slides were usable.
calibration with a special Kodachrome calibration target is necessary for accurate color reproduction.
Dust, scratches, and fingerprints on the slide are typically detected and removed by a scanner's software. Many scanners use an additional infrared channel to detect defects, as the long wave infrared
radiation passes through the film but not through dust particles. Kodachrome interacts with this infrared channel in two ways. The absorption of the cyan dye extends into the near IR region, and thus this layer is opaque to IR. Kodachrome also has a pronounced relief image that can affect the IR channel. These effects can sometimes cause a slight loss of sharpness in the scanned image when Digital ICE
or a similar infrared channel dust removal
function is used.
Kodachrome required complex processing that could not practicably be carried out by amateurs. The process has undergone four significant alterations since its inception. The final version of the process, designated K-14
, was introduced in 1974. The process was complex and exacting, requiring technicians with extensive chemistry training, as well as large, difficult-to-operate machinery.
First, the antihalation backing was removed with an alkaline solution and wash. The film was then developed using a developer
containing phenidone
and hydroquinone
, which formed three superimposed negative images, one for each primary color
.
After washing out the first developer, the film underwent re-exposure and redevelopment. Re-exposure fogged the silver halides that were not developed in the first developer. A color developer then developed the fogged image, and its exhaustion products reacted with a color coupler to form a dye in the color complementary
to the layer's sensitivity.
The layers were developed in the following order: The red-sensitive layer was re-exposed through the base of the film with red light, then redeveloped forming cyan dye. The blue-sensitive layer was re-exposed through the emulsion side of the film with blue light, then redeveloped forming yellow dye. The green-sensitive layer was redeveloped with a developer that chemically fogged it and formed magenta dye.
Following color development, the metallic silver was converted back to silver halide using a bleach solution. The film was then fixed
, making these silver halides soluble and leaving only the final dye image. The film was finally washed to remove residual chemicals which might cause deterioration of the dye image, then dried, cut, and mounted in slide frames.
After 1954, as a result of the case United States v. Eastman Kodak Co., this practice was prohibited in the United States as anticompetitive. Kodak entered into a consent decree
, ending this product tying practice in the United States, and allowed independent processing laboratories to acquire the chemicals needed to process Kodachrome films.
's Velvia
slide film, caused a drop in Kodachrome sales. Kodachrome products were gradually discontinued and on June 22, 2009, Kodak announced Kodachrome would no longer be manufactured.
Many Kodachrome processing laboratories, both Kodak-owned and independent, closed because of the decreasing volume of business. The loss of processing availability further accelerated the fall in Kodachrome sales. On 25 July 2006, extensive documentation about Kodak's Lausanne Kodachrome lab's impending closure was sent to the European Parliament
by the Dutch office of the European Parliament because, although located in Switzerland
, the facility served all of Europe and its closure would affect European photographers. The Parliamentary committees for Culture and Education, and for Internal Market and Consumer Protection studied the matter.
In 1999 Kodak attempted to increase the availability of K-14 processing through the K-Lab program, where small labs equipped with smaller Kodak processing machines would supplement Kodak's own processing services. This effort did not endure; all the K-labs were closed by 2005.
, which was the world's last Kodachrome processing facility. Dwayne's processing of 35 mm films was fully endorsed by Kodak, but Dwayne's Super-8 process was not endorsed because it required more agitation. Films sent for processing in the U.S. were mailed directly to Dwayne's, while those sent for processing in Europe were sent to the Lausanne facility's address and forwarded to Dwayne's.
Dwayne's Photo announced in late 2010 that it would process all Kodachrome rolls received at the lab by 30 December 2010, after which further processing would cease. The end of professional processing meant the end of the Kodachrome era. As Dwayne's final processing deadline approached, thousands of stored-up rolls of film were sent in for processing.
Once film received by the deadline had been developed, the world's last K-14 processing machine was taken out of service. The final roll to be processed was exposed by Dwayne Steinle, owner of Dwayne's Photo.
Though Kodachrome can no longer be processed in color, it can be processed in black and white by some labs that specialise in obsolete processes and old film processing. Experiments in order to develop Kodachrome in colors again are being planned.
Processing of obsolete Kodachrome types K-11 and K-12:
Eastman Kodak
Eastman Kodak Company is a multinational imaging and photographic equipment, materials and services company headquarted in Rochester, New York, United States. It was founded by George Eastman in 1892....
from 1935 to 2009.
Background
Kodachrome was the first successfully mass-marketed color still film using a subtractive colorSubtractive color
A subtractive color model explains the mixing of paints, dyes, inks, and natural colorants to create a full range of colors, each caused by subtracting some wavelengths of light and reflecting the others...
method, in contrast to earlier additive "screenplate" methods such as Autochrome
Autochrome Lumière
The Autochrome Lumière is an early color photography process. Patented in 1903 by the Lumière brothers in France and first marketed in 1907, it was the principal color photography process in use before the advent of subtractive color film in the mid-1930s....
and Dufaycolor
Dufaycolor
Dufaycolor is an early French and British additive color photographic film process for motion pictures and stills photography. It was based on a four-color screen photographic process invented in 1908 by Frenchman Louis Dufay...
, and was the oldest surviving brand of color film for many years.
Kodachrome film was manufactured for 74 years in various formats to suit still
Photography
Photography is the art, science and practice of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either electronically by means of an image sensor or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film...
and motion picture
Cinematography
Cinematography is the making of lighting and camera choices when recording photographic images for cinema. It is closely related to the art of still photography...
cameras, including 8 mm
8 mm film
8 mm film is a motion picture film format in which the filmstrip is eight millimeters wide. It exists in two main versions: the original standard 8mm film, also known as regular 8 mm or Double 8 mm, and Super 8...
, Super 8
Super 8 mm film
Super 8 mm film is a motion picture film format released in 1965 by Eastman Kodak as an improvement of the older "Double" or "Regular" 8 mm home movie format....
, 16 mm
16 mm film
16 mm film refers to a popular, economical gauge of film used for motion pictures and non-theatrical film making. 16 mm refers to the width of the film...
, and 35 mm
35 mm film
35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for chemical still photography and motion pictures. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, which consists of strips 35 millimeters in width...
for movies and 35 mm
135 film
The term 135 was introduced by Kodak in 1934 as a designation for cartridge film wide, specifically for still photography. It quickly grew in popularity, surpassing 120 film by the late 1960s to become the most popular photographic film format...
, 120
120 film
120 is a film format for still photography introduced by Kodak for their Brownie No. 2 in 1901. It was originally intended for amateur photography but was later superseded in this role by 135 film...
, 110
110 film
110 is a cartridge-based film format used in still photography. It was introduced by Kodak in 1972. 110 is a miniaturised version of Kodak's earlier 126 film format. Each frame is , with one registration hole....
, 126
126 film
126 is the number given to a cartridge-based film format used in still photography. It was introduced by Kodak in 1963, and is associated mainly with low-end point-and-shoot cameras, particularly Kodak's own Instamatic series of cameras....
, 828
828 film
828 is a film format for still photography. Kodak introduced it in 1935, only a year after 135 film. 828 film was introduced with the Kodak Bantam, a consumer-level camera....
, and large format
Sheet film
Sheet film is large format and medium format photographic film supplied on individual sheets of acetate or polyester film base rather than rolls. Sheet film was initially supplied as an alternative to glass plates...
for still photography. For many years, it was used for professional color photography, especially for images intended for publication in print media. The film was sold with processing included in the purchase price except in the United States, where a 1954 legal ruling ended that practice.
Kodachrome is appreciated in the archival and professional market for its dark-storage longevity. Because of these qualities, Kodachrome was used by professional photographers like Steve McCurry
Steve McCurry
Steve McCurry is an American photojournalist best known for his photograph, "Afghan Girl" that originally appeared in National Geographic magazine.-Early life:...
, Peter Guttman
Peter Guttman (photographer)
Peter Guttman is an American author, photographer, lecturer, television personality and adventurer who has traveled on assignment through over 200 countries and seven continents.-Early Life:...
and Alex Webb. McCurry used Kodachrome for his well-known 1984 portrait of Sharbat Gula
Sharbat Gula
Sharbat Gula is an Afghan woman who was the subject of a famous photograph by journalist Steve McCurry. Gula was living as a refugee in Pakistan during the time of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan when she was photographed...
, the "Afghan Girl" for the National Geographic magazine. It was used by Walton Sound and Film Services in the UK in 1953 for the official 16 mm film of the coronation of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second
Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom
Elizabeth II is the constitutional monarch of 16 sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize,...
. Prints for sale to the public were also produced using Kodachrome.
Competing slide films, such as Fujichrome and Kodak Ektachrome
Ektachrome
Ektachrome is a brand name owned by Kodak for a range of transparency, still, and motion picture films available in most formats, including 35 mm and sheet sizes to 11x14 inch size. Ektachrome has a distinctive look that became familiar to many readers of National Geographic, which used it...
, use the E-6 process
E-6 process
The E-6 process is a chromogenic photographic process for developing Ektachrome, Fujichrome and other color reversal photographic film....
which is simpler, less expensive, more quickly processed and more widely available; this eroded Kodachrome's market share as the quality of competing films improved during the 1980s and 1990s. As digital photography
Digital photography
Digital photography is a form of photography that uses an array of light sensitive sensors to capture the image focused by the lens, as opposed to an exposure on light sensitive film...
reduced the demand for all varieties of film in the first decade of the 21st century, Kodachrome sales further declined. On 22 June 2009, Kodak announced the end of Kodachrome production, citing declining demand.
During its heyday, many Kodak and independent laboratories processed Kodachrome; by 2010, one Kodak-certified facility remained: Dwayne's Photo
Dwayne's Photo
Dwayne's Photo is a film processing facility in Parsons, Kansas founded in 1956. It was the last Kodak certified Kodachrome processing facility in the world, until the line was shut down on December 30, 2010 due to lack of developing chemicals.- History :...
in Parsons, Kansas
Parsons, Kansas
Parsons is a city in the northern part of Labette County, located in Southeast Kansas, in the Central United States. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 10,500...
. On 14 July 2010, it was announced that the last roll of Kodachrome to be manufactured was developed by Dwayne's for photographer Steve McCurry
Steve McCurry
Steve McCurry is an American photojournalist best known for his photograph, "Afghan Girl" that originally appeared in National Geographic magazine.-Early life:...
on assignment for National Geographic
National Geographic Magazine
National Geographic, formerly the National Geographic Magazine, is the official journal of the National Geographic Society. It published its first issue in 1888, just nine months after the Society itself was founded...
. The 36 slides will be permanently housed at the Eastman House
George Eastman House
The George Eastman House is the world's oldest museum dedicated to photography and one of the world's oldest film archives, opened to the public in 1949 in Rochester, New York, USA. World-renowned for its photograph and motion picture archives, the museum is also a leader in film preservation and...
in Rochester, New York
Rochester, New York
Rochester is a city in Monroe County, New York, south of Lake Ontario in the United States. Known as The World's Image Centre, it was also once known as The Flour City, and more recently as The Flower City...
and most of the pictures have been published on the Internet by Vanity Fair
Vanity Fair (magazine)
Vanity Fair is a magazine of pop culture, fashion, and current affairs published by Condé Nast. The present Vanity Fair has been published since 1983 and there have been editions for four European countries as well as the U.S. edition. This revived the title which had ceased publication in 1935...
magazine.
History
The additiveAdditive color
An additive color model involves light emitted directly from a source or illuminant of some sort. The additive reproduction process usually uses red, green and blue light to produce the other colors. Combining one of these additive primary colors with another in equal amounts produces the...
methods of color photography
Color photography
Color photography is photography that uses media capable of representing colors, which are traditionally produced chemically during the photographic processing phase...
, such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor
Dufaycolor
Dufaycolor is an early French and British additive color photographic film process for motion pictures and stills photography. It was based on a four-color screen photographic process invented in 1908 by Frenchman Louis Dufay...
, were the first practical color processes; however, these had disadvantages. A réseau filter was made from discrete color elements that were visible upon enlargement. The finished transparencies absorbed between 70% and 80% of light upon projection, requiring very bright projection lamps, especially for large projections. Using the subtractive
Subtractive color
A subtractive color model explains the mixing of paints, dyes, inks, and natural colorants to create a full range of colors, each caused by subtracting some wavelengths of light and reflecting the others...
method, these disadvantages could be avoided.
Kodachrome was invented in the early 1930s by two professional musicians, Leopold Godowsky, Jr.
Leopold Godowsky, Jr.
Leopold Godowsky, Jr. was an American violinist and chemist, who together with Leopold Mannes created the first practical color transparency film, Kodachrome.-Beginning:...
and Leopold Mannes
Leopold Mannes
Leopold Damrosch Mannes was a Jewish-American musician, born in New York City, who, together with Leopold Godowsky, Jr., created the first practical color transparency film, Kodachrome....
; hence the comment that "Kodachrome was made by God and Man". It was first sold in 1935 as 16 mm movie film. In 1936 it was made available in 8 mm
8 mm film
8 mm film is a motion picture film format in which the filmstrip is eight millimeters wide. It exists in two main versions: the original standard 8mm film, also known as regular 8 mm or Double 8 mm, and Super 8...
movie film, and slide film in both 35mm
135 film
The term 135 was introduced by Kodak in 1934 as a designation for cartridge film wide, specifically for still photography. It quickly grew in popularity, surpassing 120 film by the late 1960s to become the most popular photographic film format...
and 828
828 film
828 is a film format for still photography. Kodak introduced it in 1935, only a year after 135 film. 828 film was introduced with the Kodak Bantam, a consumer-level camera....
formats. Kodachrome would eventually be produced in a wide variety of film formats including 120 and 4x5, and in ISO/ASA values ranging from 8 to 200.
Kodachrome was the subject of Paul Simon
Paul Simon
Paul Frederic Simon is an American singer-songwriter and guitarist.Simon is best known for his success, beginning in 1965, as part of the duo Simon & Garfunkel, with musical partner Art Garfunkel. Simon wrote most of the pair's songs, including three that reached number one on the US singles...
's song "Kodachrome"
Kodachrome (song)
"Kodachrome" is a song written and recorded by Paul Simon. It appeared on his 1973 album There Goes Rhymin' Simon.-Description:The song is named after the Kodak 35mm film Kodachrome...
, and Kodachrome Basin State Park
Kodachrome Basin State Park
Kodachrome Basin is a state park of Utah, USA. It is situated above sea level, south of Utah Route 12, and southeast of Bryce Canyon National Park. It is accessible from the north from Cannonville by a paved road and from the south by Road 400, a dirt road from the Page, Arizona area to...
in Utah was named after it, becoming the only park named for a brand of film.
Characteristics
Emulsion
Unlike transparencyE-6 process
The E-6 process is a chromogenic photographic process for developing Ektachrome, Fujichrome and other color reversal photographic film....
and negative
C-41 process
C-41 is a chromogenic color print film developing process. C-41, also known as CN-16 by Fuji, CNK-4 by Konica, and AP-70 by AGFA, is the most popular film process in use, with most photofinishing labs devoting at least one machine to this development process....
color films with dye couplers incorporated into the emulsion layers, Kodachrome had none. The dye couplers were added during processing. Without couplers, the emulsion layers were thinner, causing less light scattering and allowing the film to record a sharper image. A Kodachrome slide is discernible by an easily-visible relief image on the emulsion side of the film. Kodachrome has a dynamic range of around 8 stops, or 3.6-3.8D.
Color
Kodachrome was the first commercially successful color film. Its particular color cast was ubiquitous in color photography for several decades after its introduction in the 1930s. Even after the introduction of other successful professional color films, such as Fuji VelviaVelvia
Velvia is a brand of daylight-balanced color reversal film produced by the Japanese company Fujifilm. The name is a contraction of "Velvet Media", a reference to its smooth image structure. The original incarnation of the film was called "Velvia for Professionals", known as RVP, a classification...
, some professionals continued to prefer Kodachrome, and maintain that it still has certain advantages over digital:
Archival stability
When stored in darkness, Kodachrome's long-term stability under ordinary conditions is superior to other types of color film; images on Kodachrome slides over fifty years old retain accurate color and density. It has been calculated that the yellow dye, the least stable, would suffer a 20% loss of dye in 185 years. This is because developed Kodachrome retains no unused color couplers. However, Kodachrome's color stability under bright light, for example during projectionSlide projector
A slide projector is an opto-mechanical device to view photographic slides. Slide projectors were common in the 1950s to the 1970s as a form of entertainment; family members and friends would gather to view slide shows...
, is inferior to E-6 process
E-6 process
The E-6 process is a chromogenic photographic process for developing Ektachrome, Fujichrome and other color reversal photographic film....
slide films; Kodachrome's fade time under projection is about one hour, compared to Fujichrome's two and a half hours.
Unprocessed Kodachrome may survive long periods between exposure and processing. In one case, several rolls were exposed and then lost in a Canadian forest; upon discovery 19 years later they were processed and the slides were usable.
Digital scanning and resolution
A 35mm Kodachrome transparency, like other 35mm transparencies on films of comparable ISO rating, contains an equivalent of approximately 20 megapixels of data in the 24 mm x 36 mm image. Scanning Kodachrome transparencies can be problematic because of the film's tendency to scan with a blue color cast. Some software producers deliver special Kodachrome color profiles with their software to avoid this. However, an IT8IT8
IT8 is a set of American National Standards Institute standards for color communications and control specifications. Formerly governed by the IT8 Committee, IT8 activities were merged with those of the Committee for Graphics Arts Technologies Standards in 1994.-Standards List:The following is a...
calibration with a special Kodachrome calibration target is necessary for accurate color reproduction.
Dust, scratches, and fingerprints on the slide are typically detected and removed by a scanner's software. Many scanners use an additional infrared channel to detect defects, as the long wave infrared
Infrared
Infrared light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.74 micrometres , and extending conventionally to 300 µm...
radiation passes through the film but not through dust particles. Kodachrome interacts with this infrared channel in two ways. The absorption of the cyan dye extends into the near IR region, and thus this layer is opaque to IR. Kodachrome also has a pronounced relief image that can affect the IR channel. These effects can sometimes cause a slight loss of sharpness in the scanned image when Digital ICE
Digital ICE
Digital Image Correction and Enhancement is a set of technologies related to producing an altered image in a variety of frequency spectra. The objective of these technologies is to render an image more usable by Fourier or other filtering techniques...
or a similar infrared channel dust removal
Infrared cleaning
Infrared cleaning is a technique used by some film scanners and flatbed scanners to reduce or remove the effect of dust and scratches upon the finished scan. It works by collecting an additional infrared channel from the scan at the same position and resolution as the three visible colour channels...
function is used.
Processing of Kodachrome films
K-14 process
K-14 was the developing process for Kodak's Kodachrome transparency film; the last version having been designated Process K-14M. The process differed significantly from its contemporary, the E-6 process, in both complexity and length. Kodachrome film has no integral color couplers; dyes are...
, was introduced in 1974. The process was complex and exacting, requiring technicians with extensive chemistry training, as well as large, difficult-to-operate machinery.
First, the antihalation backing was removed with an alkaline solution and wash. The film was then developed using a developer
Photographic developer
In the processing of photographic films, plates or papers, the photographic developer is a chemical that makes the latent image on the film or print visible. It does this by reducing the silver halides that have been exposed to light to elemental silver in the gelatine matrix...
containing phenidone
Phenidone
Phenidone is an organic chemical compound whose primary use is as a photographic developer. It has five to ten times the developing power as Metol. It also has low toxicity and, unlike some other developers, does not cause dermatitis upon skin contact.Phenidone is Ilford's trademark for this...
and hydroquinone
Hydroquinone
Hydroquinone, also benzene-1,4-diol or quinol, is an aromatic organic compound that is a type of phenol, having the chemical formula C6H42. Its chemical structure, shown in the table at right, has two hydroxyl groups bonded to a benzene ring in a para position. It is a white granular solid...
, which formed three superimposed negative images, one for each primary color
Primary color
Primary colors are sets of colors that can be combined to make a useful range of colors. For human applications, three primary colors are usually used, since human color vision is trichromatic....
.
After washing out the first developer, the film underwent re-exposure and redevelopment. Re-exposure fogged the silver halides that were not developed in the first developer. A color developer then developed the fogged image, and its exhaustion products reacted with a color coupler to form a dye in the color complementary
Complementary color
Complementary colors are pairs of colors that are of “opposite” hue in some color model. The exact hue “complementary” to a given hue depends on the model in question, and perceptually uniform, additive, and subtractive color models, for example, have differing complements for any given color.-...
to the layer's sensitivity.
The layers were developed in the following order: The red-sensitive layer was re-exposed through the base of the film with red light, then redeveloped forming cyan dye. The blue-sensitive layer was re-exposed through the emulsion side of the film with blue light, then redeveloped forming yellow dye. The green-sensitive layer was redeveloped with a developer that chemically fogged it and formed magenta dye.
Following color development, the metallic silver was converted back to silver halide using a bleach solution. The film was then fixed
Photographic fixer
Photographic fixer is a chemical or a mix of chemicals used in the final step in the photographic processing of film or paper. The fixer stabilises the image, removing the unexposed silver halide remaining on the photographic film or photographic paper, leaving behind the reduced metallic silver...
, making these silver halides soluble and leaving only the final dye image. The film was finally washed to remove residual chemicals which might cause deterioration of the dye image, then dried, cut, and mounted in slide frames.
Prepaid processing
Due to the complexity of its processing, Kodachrome was initially sold at a price which included processing by Kodak. An envelope was included with the film, in which the photographer would send the exposed film to the nearest of several designated Kodak laboratories. The film was processed, mounted in 2" x 2" cardboard mounts in the case of 35 mm slides, and returned by mail to the sender.After 1954, as a result of the case United States v. Eastman Kodak Co., this practice was prohibited in the United States as anticompetitive. Kodak entered into a consent decree
Consent decree
A consent decree is a final, binding judicial decree or judgment memorializing a voluntary agreement between parties to a suit in return for withdrawal of a criminal charge or an end to a civil litigation...
, ending this product tying practice in the United States, and allowed independent processing laboratories to acquire the chemicals needed to process Kodachrome films.
Decline
The use of slide film in general declined in the 1980s and 1990s which, combined with competition from FujiFujifilm
is a multinational photography and imaging company headquartered in Tokyo, Japan.Fujifilm's principal activities are the development, production, sale and servicing of color photographic film, digital cameras, photofinishing equipment, color paper, photofinishing chemicals, medical imaging...
's Velvia
Velvia
Velvia is a brand of daylight-balanced color reversal film produced by the Japanese company Fujifilm. The name is a contraction of "Velvet Media", a reference to its smooth image structure. The original incarnation of the film was called "Velvia for Professionals", known as RVP, a classification...
slide film, caused a drop in Kodachrome sales. Kodachrome products were gradually discontinued and on June 22, 2009, Kodak announced Kodachrome would no longer be manufactured.
Many Kodachrome processing laboratories, both Kodak-owned and independent, closed because of the decreasing volume of business. The loss of processing availability further accelerated the fall in Kodachrome sales. On 25 July 2006, extensive documentation about Kodak's Lausanne Kodachrome lab's impending closure was sent to the European Parliament
European Parliament
The European Parliament is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union . Together with the Council of the European Union and the Commission, it exercises the legislative function of the EU and it has been described as one of the most powerful legislatures in the world...
by the Dutch office of the European Parliament because, although located in Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
, the facility served all of Europe and its closure would affect European photographers. The Parliamentary committees for Culture and Education, and for Internal Market and Consumer Protection studied the matter.
In 1999 Kodak attempted to increase the availability of K-14 processing through the K-Lab program, where small labs equipped with smaller Kodak processing machines would supplement Kodak's own processing services. This effort did not endure; all the K-labs were closed by 2005.
Cessation of processing
In the final years, Kodak subcontracted the processing work to Dwayne's Photo, an independent facility in KansasKansas
Kansas is a US state located in the Midwestern United States. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribe's name is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south...
, which was the world's last Kodachrome processing facility. Dwayne's processing of 35 mm films was fully endorsed by Kodak, but Dwayne's Super-8 process was not endorsed because it required more agitation. Films sent for processing in the U.S. were mailed directly to Dwayne's, while those sent for processing in Europe were sent to the Lausanne facility's address and forwarded to Dwayne's.
Dwayne's Photo announced in late 2010 that it would process all Kodachrome rolls received at the lab by 30 December 2010, after which further processing would cease. The end of professional processing meant the end of the Kodachrome era. As Dwayne's final processing deadline approached, thousands of stored-up rolls of film were sent in for processing.
Once film received by the deadline had been developed, the world's last K-14 processing machine was taken out of service. The final roll to be processed was exposed by Dwayne Steinle, owner of Dwayne's Photo.
Though Kodachrome can no longer be processed in color, it can be processed in black and white by some labs that specialise in obsolete processes and old film processing. Experiments in order to develop Kodachrome in colors again are being planned.
Discontinuation
The Kodachrome product range diminished progressively through the 1990s and 2000s.- Kodachrome 64 film in 120 format120 film120 is a film format for still photography introduced by Kodak for their Brownie No. 2 in 1901. It was originally intended for amateur photography but was later superseded in this role by 135 film...
was discontinued in 1996.
- Kodachrome 25 was discontinued in 2002. Many point to the introduction of VelviaVelviaVelvia is a brand of daylight-balanced color reversal film produced by the Japanese company Fujifilm. The name is a contraction of "Velvet Media", a reference to its smooth image structure. The original incarnation of the film was called "Velvia for Professionals", known as RVP, a classification...
or the decline in quality of processing as the reason for its demise.
- Kodachrome 40 in the Super 8 movie format was discontinued in June 2005, despite protests from filmmakers. Kodak launched a replacement color reversal film in the Super 8 format, Ektachrome 64TEktachromeEktachrome is a brand name owned by Kodak for a range of transparency, still, and motion picture films available in most formats, including 35 mm and sheet sizes to 11x14 inch size. Ektachrome has a distinctive look that became familiar to many readers of National Geographic, which used it...
, which uses the common E-6 processing chemistryE-6 processThe E-6 process is a chromogenic photographic process for developing Ektachrome, Fujichrome and other color reversal photographic film....
.
- Kodachrome 200 was discontinued in November 2006. The last emulsion batch was numbered 2672, labeled with an expiration date of September 2008.
- Kodachrome 64 and Kodachrome 64 Professional 135 format135 filmThe term 135 was introduced by Kodak in 1934 as a designation for cartridge film wide, specifically for still photography. It quickly grew in popularity, surpassing 120 film by the late 1960s to become the most popular photographic film format...
were discontinued in June 2009. The last emulsion batch was numbered 1563, labeled with an expiration date of November 2010.
Product timeline
| Film | Date | |
|---|---|---|
| Kodachrome film | 16 mm, daylight (ASA 10) & Type A (ASA 16) | 1935–1962 |
| 8 mm, daylight (ASA 10) & Type A (ASA 16) | 1936–1962 | |
| 35 mm and 828, daylight & Type A | 1936–1962 | |
| Kodachrome Professional film (sheets) | daylight (ASA 8) and Type B (ASA 10) | 1938–1951 |
| K-11 process | ||
| Kodachrome film | 35 mm and 828, Type F (ASA 12) | 1955–1962 |
| Kodachrome Professional film | 35 mm, Type A (ASA 16) | 1956–1962 |
| Kodak Color Print Material | Type D (slide duping film) | 1955–1957 |
| K-12 process | ||
| Kodachrome II film | 16 mm, daylight (ASA 25) and Type A (ASA 40) | 1961–1974 |
| 8 mm, daylight (ASA 25) and Type A (ASA 40) | 1961–1974 | |
| S-8, Type A (ASA 40) | 1965–1974 | |
| 35 mm and 828, daylight (ASA 25/early) (ASA 64/late) | 1961–1974 | |
| Professional, 35 mm, Type A (ASA 40) | 1962–1978 | |
| Kodachrome-X film | 35 mm (ASA 64) | 1962–1974 |
| 126 format | 1963–1974 | |
| 110 format | 1972–1974 | |
| K-14 process | ||
| Kodachrome 25 film | 35 mm, daylight | 1974–2001 |
| Movie film, 16 mm, daylight | 1974–2002 | |
| Movie film, 8 mm, daylight | 1974–1992 | |
| Professional film, 35 mm, daylight | 1983–1999 | |
| Kodachrome 40 film | 35 mm, Type A | 1978–1997 |
| Movie film, 16 mm, Type A | 1974–2006 | |
| Movie film, S-8, Type A | 1974–2005 | |
| Sound Movie film, S-8, Type A | 1974–1998 | |
| Movie film, 8 mm, Type A | 1974–1992 | |
| Kodachrome 64 | 35 mm, daylight | 1974–2009 |
| 126 format, daylight | 1974–1993 | |
| 110 format, daylight | 1974–1987 | |
| Professional film, 35 mm, daylight | 1983–2009 | |
| Professional film, daylight, 120 format | 1986–1996 | |
| Kodachrome 200 | Professional film, 35 mm, daylight | 1986–2004 |
| 35 mm, daylight | 1988–2007 | |
Official Kodak information
Other resources
- Dwayne's Photo Last color Kodachrome processing facility in the world.
- Kodachrome Slide Dating Guide.
- The Kodachrome Project.
- Club by and for Kodachrome users.
- The pre paid processing packet project 2010
Processing of obsolete Kodachrome types K-11 and K-12:
- Film Rescue International Worldwide - Can process Kodachrome in black and white
- Process C-22 UK and Europe
- Old Film Processing UK and Worldwide