Francisco de Chicora
Encyclopedia
Francisco de Chicora was the baptismal name given to a Native American
kidnapped in 1521, along with 70 others, from near the mouth of the Pee Dee River
by Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo and slave trader Pedro de Quexos, based in Santo Domingo
and the first Europeans to reach the area. From analysis of the account by Peter Martyr
, court chronicler, the ethnographer John R. Swanton
believed that Chicora was from a Catawba
n group.
In Hispaniola
, where he and the other captives were taken, Chicora learned Spanish, was baptized a Catholic, and worked for Lucas Vasquez de Ayllón, a colonial official. Most of the Catawba died within two years. Accompanying Ayllón to Spain, de Chicora met with the chronicler Peter Martyr
and told him much about his people. Martyr combined this information with accounts by explorers and recorded it as the "Testimony of Francisco de Chicora
," published with his seventh "decade" in 1525. In 1526 Chicora accompanied Ayllón on a major expedition to North America with 600 colonists. After they struck land at the Santee River
and the party went ashore, Chicora escaped and returned to his people.
and other areas.
Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, auditor of Santo Domingo, commissioned Francisco Gordillo to make an expedition to the continent. On the way, Gordillo encountered his cousin Pedro de Quexos in the Bahamas, who was trying to capture Arawak to sell as slaves, without success. Quexos decided to join Gordilla's expedition, and in June the two struck land at what they called the River of San Juan Bautista (St. John the Baptist), probably the Pee Dee in present-day South Carolina
. A crowd of curious natives gathered on the shore to watch the strangers. The natives fled when the Spanish approached in shallops, but two were caught, taken aboard a ship, given Spanish clothes, and returned ashore. The natives again swarmed the beach, seeing their comrades' return and changed appearance as a wondrous sign, since they had worn only buckskins before. The chief
ordered 50 of his subjects to bring food for the Spanish. Once ashore, the Spanish were given presents and a guided tour for several days. They claimed the land for their king, and invited the natives aboard to see their ships.
Gordilla had been ordered by de Ayllón to cultivate friendly relations with the people to prepare for later colonization. De Quexos, eager for slaves, persuaded him to trick the natives; the Spaniards suddenly raised anchor and set sail for Santo Domingo
with 70 of the natives still aboard, including the man who would be named Francisco. When they arrived, Ayllón condemned the leaders for their treachery. He took the matter before a commission headed by Diego Columbus. The commission declared the captive natives to be free, and ordered them returned to the mainland, but such a trip never took place, as it was considered too costly.
As recounted by Peter Martyr
the court chronicler, according to colonial reports, most of the natives died within two years; many wandered the streets of Santo Domingo as vagrants, and the few who survived became servants. He described them as white, larger than the average Spaniard, and dressed in animal skins. One who survived was baptized Francisco de Chicora; he learned Spanish and worked for Ayllón.
De Chicora accompanied Ayllón on a trip to Spain, where he met the court chronicler, Peter Martyr. Francisco de Chicora was one of the natives who survived, and learned Spanish. He recounted to Peter Martyr much about the practices of his people in Chicora
and about the neighboring provinces.
After returning to the Caribbean, in 1526 Ayllón led an expedition to North America with three ships and 600 colonists, bringing de Chicora with him. After striking land at what Ayllón named the Jordan River (now the Santee River
in South Carolina), one of his ships went aground. As the party went ashore, de Chicora immediately abandoned the Spanish and fled to rejoin his own people. He disappeared from the historical record.
Other sources, such as Oviedo, Navarrete, Barcia, and Documentos Ineditos list additional provinces derived from Francisco de Chicora, some of which have been tentatively identified by Swanton and other researchers:
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
kidnapped in 1521, along with 70 others, from near the mouth of the Pee Dee River
Pee Dee River
The Pee Dee River, also known as the Great Pee Dee River, is a river in North Carolina and South Carolina. It originates in the Appalachian Mountains in North Carolina, where its upper course above the mouth of the Uwharrie River is known as the Yadkin River. It is extensively dammed for flood...
by Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo and slave trader Pedro de Quexos, based in Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo, known officially as Santo Domingo de Guzmán, is the capital and largest city in the Dominican Republic. Its metropolitan population was 2,084,852 in 2003, and estimated at 3,294,385 in 2010. The city is located on the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the Ozama River...
and the first Europeans to reach the area. From analysis of the account by Peter Martyr
Peter Martyr
Peter Martyr is the name of:*Peter of Verona, 13th-century martyr*Peter Martyr Vermigli, 16th-century Italian theologian*Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, 16th-century Italian-born historian of Spain and its New World discoveries...
, court chronicler, the ethnographer John R. Swanton
John R. Swanton
John Reed Swanton was an American anthropologist and linguist who worked with Native American peoples throughout the United States. Swanton achieved recognition in the fields of ethnology and ethnohistory...
believed that Chicora was from a Catawba
Catawba
Catawba may refer to several things:*Catawba , a Native American tribe*Catawban languages-Botany:*Catalpa, a genus of trees, based on the name used by the Catawba and other Native American tribes*Catawba , a variety of grape...
n group.
In Hispaniola
Hispaniola
Hispaniola is a major island in the Caribbean, containing the two sovereign states of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The island is located between the islands of Cuba to the west and Puerto Rico to the east, within the hurricane belt...
, where he and the other captives were taken, Chicora learned Spanish, was baptized a Catholic, and worked for Lucas Vasquez de Ayllón, a colonial official. Most of the Catawba died within two years. Accompanying Ayllón to Spain, de Chicora met with the chronicler Peter Martyr
Peter Martyr d'Anghiera
Peter Martyr d'Anghiera was an Italian-born historian of Spain and its discoveries during the Age of Exploration...
and told him much about his people. Martyr combined this information with accounts by explorers and recorded it as the "Testimony of Francisco de Chicora
Chicora tribe
The Chicora tribe was a small Native American tribe of the Pee Dee area in northeastern South Carolina, ranging to the Cape Fear River in North Carolina. Scholars consider them a Catawban group, likely to have spoken a Siouan language....
," published with his seventh "decade" in 1525. In 1526 Chicora accompanied Ayllón on a major expedition to North America with 600 colonists. After they struck land at the Santee River
Santee River
The Santee River is a river in South Carolina in the United States, long. The Santee and its tributaries provide the principal drainage and navigation for the central coastal plain of South Carolina, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean approximately from its farthest headwater on the Catawba River...
and the party went ashore, Chicora escaped and returned to his people.
Spanish encounter with natives at the Pee Dee River
The Spanish had repeated expeditions to the Southeast, where they explored areas around the Santee River in South Carolina and Winyah BayWinyah Bay
Winyah Bay is a coastal estuary that is the confluence of the Waccamaw River, the Pee Dee River, the Black River and the Sampit River in Georgetown County in eastern South Carolina...
and other areas.
Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, auditor of Santo Domingo, commissioned Francisco Gordillo to make an expedition to the continent. On the way, Gordillo encountered his cousin Pedro de Quexos in the Bahamas, who was trying to capture Arawak to sell as slaves, without success. Quexos decided to join Gordilla's expedition, and in June the two struck land at what they called the River of San Juan Bautista (St. John the Baptist), probably the Pee Dee in present-day South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
. A crowd of curious natives gathered on the shore to watch the strangers. The natives fled when the Spanish approached in shallops, but two were caught, taken aboard a ship, given Spanish clothes, and returned ashore. The natives again swarmed the beach, seeing their comrades' return and changed appearance as a wondrous sign, since they had worn only buckskins before. The chief
Chief
- Title or rank :* Chiefs of the Name, the head of a family or clan* Chief executive officer, the highest-ranking corporate officer of an organization* Chief Master Sergeant, in the United States Air Force* Chief of police, the head of a police department...
ordered 50 of his subjects to bring food for the Spanish. Once ashore, the Spanish were given presents and a guided tour for several days. They claimed the land for their king, and invited the natives aboard to see their ships.
Gordilla had been ordered by de Ayllón to cultivate friendly relations with the people to prepare for later colonization. De Quexos, eager for slaves, persuaded him to trick the natives; the Spaniards suddenly raised anchor and set sail for Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo, known officially as Santo Domingo de Guzmán, is the capital and largest city in the Dominican Republic. Its metropolitan population was 2,084,852 in 2003, and estimated at 3,294,385 in 2010. The city is located on the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the Ozama River...
with 70 of the natives still aboard, including the man who would be named Francisco. When they arrived, Ayllón condemned the leaders for their treachery. He took the matter before a commission headed by Diego Columbus. The commission declared the captive natives to be free, and ordered them returned to the mainland, but such a trip never took place, as it was considered too costly.
As recounted by Peter Martyr
Peter Martyr
Peter Martyr is the name of:*Peter of Verona, 13th-century martyr*Peter Martyr Vermigli, 16th-century Italian theologian*Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, 16th-century Italian-born historian of Spain and its New World discoveries...
the court chronicler, according to colonial reports, most of the natives died within two years; many wandered the streets of Santo Domingo as vagrants, and the few who survived became servants. He described them as white, larger than the average Spaniard, and dressed in animal skins. One who survived was baptized Francisco de Chicora; he learned Spanish and worked for Ayllón.
De Chicora accompanied Ayllón on a trip to Spain, where he met the court chronicler, Peter Martyr. Francisco de Chicora was one of the natives who survived, and learned Spanish. He recounted to Peter Martyr much about the practices of his people in Chicora
Chicora tribe
The Chicora tribe was a small Native American tribe of the Pee Dee area in northeastern South Carolina, ranging to the Cape Fear River in North Carolina. Scholars consider them a Catawban group, likely to have spoken a Siouan language....
and about the neighboring provinces.
After returning to the Caribbean, in 1526 Ayllón led an expedition to North America with three ships and 600 colonists, bringing de Chicora with him. After striking land at what Ayllón named the Jordan River (now the Santee River
Santee River
The Santee River is a river in South Carolina in the United States, long. The Santee and its tributaries provide the principal drainage and navigation for the central coastal plain of South Carolina, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean approximately from its farthest headwater on the Catawba River...
in South Carolina), one of his ships went aground. As the party went ashore, de Chicora immediately abandoned the Spanish and fled to rejoin his own people. He disappeared from the historical record.
Scholarly identification of Native provinces
Researchers have worked to identify the provinces and tribes described by Chicora. They have analyzed phonetics of 16th-century Spanish, as well as the many languages of the North American tribes in the area, to reach their conclusions.- Francisco's home province, considered by Swanton to be on the lower Pee Dee RiverPee Dee RiverThe Pee Dee River, also known as the Great Pee Dee River, is a river in North Carolina and South Carolina. It originates in the Appalachian Mountains in North Carolina, where its upper course above the mouth of the Uwharrie River is known as the Yadkin River. It is extensively dammed for flood...
, was called ChicoraChicora tribeThe Chicora tribe was a small Native American tribe of the Pee Dee area in northeastern South Carolina, ranging to the Cape Fear River in North Carolina. Scholars consider them a Catawban group, likely to have spoken a Siouan language....
. Scholars generally consider the people a CatawbaCatawba (tribe)The Catawba are a federally recognized tribe of Native Americans, known as the Catawba Indian Nation. They live in the Southeast United States, along the border between North and South Carolina near the city of Rock Hill...
n group. Swanton (1940) proposed a connection with the Sugaree or ShakoriShakori TribeThe Shakori Tribe were a possibly Siouan people closely allied with other nearby tribes such as the Eno and the Sissipahaw. Their name is also recorded as Shaccoree and can be confused with the Sugaree...
; Rudes (2004) suggested CoreeCoreeThe Coree were a very small Native American tribe, who once occupied a coastal area of southeastern North Carolina in the area now covered by Carteret and Craven counties...
.
- Duahre (or Duhare, many variant spellings) was a neighboring province described as home to Datha, the principal chiefTribal chiefA tribal chief is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom. Tribal societies with social stratification under a single leader emerged in the Neolithic period out of earlier tribal structures with little stratification, and they remained prevalent throughout the Iron Age.In the case of ...
of several provinces. Ayllon is said to have marched through this province in 1526, en route to Gualdape, where he built the short-lived colony of San Miguel de GualdapeSan Miguel de GualdapeSan Miguel de Gualdape was the first European settlement inside what is now United States territory, founded by Spaniard Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in 1526. It was to last only three months of winter before being abandoned in early 1527....
. The people of Duahre were described as white with very long brown hair, allowed to grow to their feet. Datha and his wife were by far the largest of all. The location and ethnicity of these people has been debated; candidates have included Catawban, GualeGualeGuale was an historic Native American chiefdom along the coast of present-day Georgia and the Sea Islands. Spanish Florida established its Roman Catholic missionary system in the chiefdom in the late 16th century. During the late 17th century and early 18th century, Guale society was shattered...
, and CusaboCusaboThe Cusabo were a group of historic Native American tribes who lived along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in what is now South Carolina, approximately between present-day Charleston and south to the Savannah River, at the time of European encounter. English colonists often referred to them as the...
. In 2004 Blair Rudes asserted that other linguistic evidence in Martyr's account points to the Iroquoian TuscaroraTuscarora (tribe)The Tuscarora are a Native American people of the Iroquoian-language family, with members in New York, Canada, and North Carolina...
tribe, and specifically their town on the Neuse RiverNeuse RiverThe Neuse River is a river rising in the Piedmont of North Carolina and emptying into Pamlico Sound below New Bern. Its total length is approximately , making it the longest river entirely contained in North Carolina. The Trent River joins it at New Bern. Its drainage basin, measuring in area,...
called Teyurhèhtè. He suggests, for example, that Old Tuscaroran Teeth-ha (king) corresponded with the name "Datha", which he says may have been a title rather than proper name. He also notes close similarities between accounts of a religious ceremony as recounted by Francisco de Chicora, and one among the Tuscarora recounted by a European in the early eighteenth century.
- Xapita - a province near Duahre where pearls were found, was identified with the name of the Sampit RiverSampit RiverThe Sampit River begins in a swampy area of western Georgetown County, South Carolina, USA. It flows in an easterly direction to Winyah Bay at Georgetown. Only small crafts can navigate the upper parts of the river...
.
- Hitha (Yta) - a province ruled by Datha, possibly Etiwaw (Eutaw), a CusaboCusaboThe Cusabo were a group of historic Native American tribes who lived along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in what is now South Carolina, approximately between present-day Charleston and south to the Savannah River, at the time of European encounter. English colonists often referred to them as the...
subtribe.
- Tihe - a province under Datha and inhabited by a priestly tribe.
- Xamunambe - another of Datha's provinces.
- Arambe, Guacaya, Quohathe, Tanzaca (Tanaca), Pahoc - These were other regions which the Spanish recorded visiting, where they noted the indigenous peoples had dark brown skin. Swanton suggests that Guacaya may correlate to WaccamawWaccamawThe Waccamaw Indians of South Carolina, distinct from the Waccamaw Siouan Indians of North Carolina, are the first state-recognized tribe of Native Americans in South Carolina...
(a Siouan tribe), and Pahoc to "Back Hooks". Rudes connects Quohathe with Coweta (a Muscogee (Creek) subtribe); Tanzaca with "Transequa", a village shown on a 1733 map on the Upper Catawba River; and Arambe with the Ilapi of Hernando de Soto (1541), also the Mississippian-culture village called Herape by Juan PardoJuan Pardo (explorer)Juan Pardo was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who was active in the later half of the sixteenth century. He led a Spanish expedition through what is now North and South Carolina and into eastern Tennessee. He established Fort San Felipe, South Carolina , and the village of Santa Elena on...
(1568), and the later Creek town Hilibi, which had moved farther west.
- Inziguanin - described as a nation whose inhabitants had a myth that crocodile-like men had once lived in their land. Rudes suggested Inziguanin could be a reference to the ShawneeShawneeThe Shawnee, Shaawanwaki, Shaawanooki and Shaawanowi lenaweeki, are an Algonquian-speaking people native to North America. Historically they inhabited the areas of Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Western Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, and Pennsylvania...
, though they were not attested in the southeast until long afterward.
Other sources, such as Oviedo, Navarrete, Barcia, and Documentos Ineditos list additional provinces derived from Francisco de Chicora, some of which have been tentatively identified by Swanton and other researchers:
- Yamiscaron - the YamacrawYamacrawThe Yamacraw were a Native American tribe which settled parts of Georgia, specifically around the future site of the city of Savannah.- History :...
or YamaseeYamaseeThe Yamasee were a multiethnic confederation of Native Americans that lived in the coastal region of present-day northern coastal Georgia near the Savannah River and later in northeastern Florida.-History:...
tribe (Guale) - Orixa - a Cusabo subtribe on the Edisto RiverEdisto RiverThe Edisto River is the longest completely undammed / unleveed blackwater river in North America, flowing 206 meandering miles from its sources in Saluda and Edgefield counties, to its Atlantic Ocean mouth at Edisto Beach, SC...
- Coçayo - the "Coosa" subtribe of the Cusabo, who lived on the upper South Carolina rivers. These "Coosa" were probably not related to the Muskogean-speaking Coosa chiefdomCoosa chiefdomThe Coosa chiefdom was a powerful Native American paramount chiefdom near what are now Gordon and Murray counties in Georgia, in the United States. It was inhabited from about 1400 until about 1600, and dominated several smaller chiefdoms...
that De Soto encountered some 15 years later in present-day northern Georgia. - Pasqui - called the Pasque by Pardo, they lived inland near the Siouan Waxhaw TribeWaxhaw TribeThe Waxhaw Tribe was a tribe native to what are now the counties of Lancaster, in South Carolina; and Union and Mecklenburg in North Carolina, around the area of Charlotte...
. - Aymi - possibly the Hymahi of De Soto and Pardo, placed by Hudson (1990) on the Congaree RiverCongaree RiverThe Congaree River is a short but wide river in South Carolina in the United States; It flows for only 47 miles . The river serves an important role as the final outlet channel for the entire Lower Saluda and Lower Broad watersheds, before merging with the Wateree River just north of Lake Marion to...
, near where it joins the Santee. - Sona - possibly a Cusabo subtribe on the Stono RiverStono RiverThe Stono River is a tidal channel in southeast South Carolina, located southwest of Charleston. The channel runs southwest to northeast between the mainland and Wadmalaw Island and Johns Island, from north Edisto River between Johns and James Island. The Intracoastal Waterway runs through...
- Yenyohol - the Winyaw of Winyah BayWinyah BayWinyah Bay is a coastal estuary that is the confluence of the Waccamaw River, the Pee Dee River, the Black River and the Sampit River in Georgetown County in eastern South Carolina...
- Anica, Xoxi, Huaque, Anoxa - uncertain