Exodus of 1879
Encyclopedia
The Exodus of 1879 refers to the mass movement of African Americans from states
along the Mississippi River
to Kansas
in the late nineteenth century, and was the first general migration
of blacks following the Civil War
. One of the most important figures of the Exodus was Benjamin "Pap" Singleton. To escape the Ku Klux Klan
, the White League
and the Jim Crow laws
which continued to make them second-class citizen
s after Reconstruction, as many as forty thousand Exodusters
left the South
to settle in Kansas, Oklahoma
and Colorado
. In the 1880s, blacks bought more than 20000 acres (80.9 km²) of land in Kansas, and several of the settlements made during this time (e.g. Nicodemus, Kansas
, which was founded in 1877) still exist today. This sudden wave of migration came as a great surprise to many white Americans
, who did not realize that black southerners were free in name only. Many blacks left the South with the belief that they were receiving free passage to Kansas, only to be stranded in St. Louis, Missouri
. Black churches in St. Louis, together with Eastern
philanthropists, formed the Colored Relief Board and the Kansas Freedmen's Aid Society to help those stranded in St. Louis to reach Kansas.
The Kansas Fever Exodus refers specifically to six thousand blacks who moved from Mississippi
, Louisiana
and Texas
to Kansas. Many in Louisiana were inspired to leave the state when the 1879 Louisiana Constitutional Convention decided that voting rights were a matter for the state, not federal, government, thereby clearing the way for the disenfranchisement of Louisiana's black population.
The Exodus was not universally praised by African Americans; indeed, Frederick Douglass
was a critic of the movement. It was not that Douglass disagreed with the Exodusters in principle, but he felt that the movement was ill-timed and poorly organized.
U.S. state
A U.S. state is any one of the 50 federated states of the United States of America that share sovereignty with the federal government. Because of this shared sovereignty, an American is a citizen both of the federal entity and of his or her state of domicile. Four states use the official title of...
along the Mississippi River
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
to Kansas
Kansas
Kansas is a US state located in the Midwestern United States. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribe's name is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south...
in the late nineteenth century, and was the first general migration
Human migration
Human migration is physical movement by humans from one area to another, sometimes over long distances or in large groups. Historically this movement was nomadic, often causing significant conflict with the indigenous population and their displacement or cultural assimilation. Only a few nomadic...
of blacks following the Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
. One of the most important figures of the Exodus was Benjamin "Pap" Singleton. To escape the Ku Klux Klan
Ku Klux Klan
Ku Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as the Klan, is the name of three distinct past and present far-right organizations in the United States, which have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically...
, the White League
White League
The White League was a white paramilitary group started in 1874 that operated to turn Republicans out of office and intimidate freedmen from voting and political organizing. Its first chapter in Grant Parish, Louisiana was made up of many of the Confederate veterans who had participated in the...
and the Jim Crow laws
Jim Crow laws
The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United States enacted between 1876 and 1965. They mandated de jure racial segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly "separate but equal" status for black Americans...
which continued to make them second-class citizen
Second-class citizen
Second-class citizen is an informal term used to describe a person who is systematically discriminated against within a state or other political jurisdiction, despite their nominal status as a citizen or legal resident there...
s after Reconstruction, as many as forty thousand Exodusters
Exodusters
Exodusters was a name given to African Americans who fled the Southern United States for Kansas in 1879 and 1880. After the end of Reconstruction, racial oppression and rumors of the reinstitution of slavery led many freedmen to seek a new place to live....
left the South
Southern United States
The Southern United States—commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South—constitutes a large distinctive area in the southeastern and south-central United States...
to settle in Kansas, Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. With an estimated 3,751,351 residents as of the 2010 census and a land area of 68,667 square miles , Oklahoma is the 28th most populous and 20th-largest state...
and Colorado
Colorado
Colorado is a U.S. state that encompasses much of the Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains...
. In the 1880s, blacks bought more than 20000 acres (80.9 km²) of land in Kansas, and several of the settlements made during this time (e.g. Nicodemus, Kansas
Nicodemus, Kansas
Nicodemus is a small unincorporated community in Graham County in North Central Kansas, located 2000 ft above sea level in the middle of the Great Plains region of the United States. The community was founded in 1877 and is named for an African American who escaped enslavement...
, which was founded in 1877) still exist today. This sudden wave of migration came as a great surprise to many white Americans
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, who did not realize that black southerners were free in name only. Many blacks left the South with the belief that they were receiving free passage to Kansas, only to be stranded in St. Louis, Missouri
St. Louis, Missouri
St. Louis is an independent city on the eastern border of Missouri, United States. With a population of 319,294, it was the 58th-largest U.S. city at the 2010 U.S. Census. The Greater St...
. Black churches in St. Louis, together with Eastern
Eastern United States
The Eastern United States, the American East, or simply the East is traditionally defined as the states east of the Mississippi River. The first two tiers of states west of the Mississippi have traditionally been considered part of the West, but can be included in the East today; usually in...
philanthropists, formed the Colored Relief Board and the Kansas Freedmen's Aid Society to help those stranded in St. Louis to reach Kansas.
The Kansas Fever Exodus refers specifically to six thousand blacks who moved from Mississippi
Mississippi
Mississippi is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi...
, Louisiana
Louisiana
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...
and Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
to Kansas. Many in Louisiana were inspired to leave the state when the 1879 Louisiana Constitutional Convention decided that voting rights were a matter for the state, not federal, government, thereby clearing the way for the disenfranchisement of Louisiana's black population.
The Exodus was not universally praised by African Americans; indeed, Frederick Douglass
Frederick Douglass
Frederick Douglass was an American social reformer, orator, writer and statesman. After escaping from slavery, he became a leader of the abolitionist movement, gaining note for his dazzling oratory and incisive antislavery writing...
was a critic of the movement. It was not that Douglass disagreed with the Exodusters in principle, but he felt that the movement was ill-timed and poorly organized.
Further reading
- Athearn, Robert G. "Black Exodus: The Migration of 1879." The Prairie Scout 3 (1975): 86-97.
- Jack, Bryan M. "The St. Louis African American Community and the Exodusters." Columbia and London: The University of Missouri Press, 2008.
- Schwendemann, Glen. "Nicodemus: Negro Haven on the Solomon." Kansas Historical Quarterly 34 (spring 1968): 10-31.
- Schwendemann, Glen. "St. Louis and the 'Exodusters' of 1879." Journal of Negro History 46 (January 1961): 32-46.
- Schwendemann, Glen. "Wyandotte and the First 'Exodusters' of 1879." Kansas Historical Quarterly 26 (autumn 1960): 233-249.
- Strickland, Arvarh E. "Toward the Promised Land: The Exodus to Kansas and Afterward." Missouri Historical Review 69 (July 1975): 376-412.
- Van Deusen, John G. "The Exodusters of 1879." Journal of Negro History 21 (April 1936): 111-129.
- Williams, Nudie E. "Black Newspapers and the Exodusters of 1879." Kansas History 8 (winter 1985/86): 217-225.
External links
- Escaping Jim Crow
- Frederick Douglass and Richard T. Greener on the Exodus
- (PBS The West "Exodusters")
- (Kansas State Historical Society, Exoduster Flier)
- Campney, Brent M. S. This is Not Dixie Southern Spaces 6 September 2007