East Mountain Teaching
Encyclopedia
'East Mountain Teaching' denotes the teachings of the Fourth Ancestor Dayi Daoxin, his disciple and heir the Fifth Ancestor Daman Hongren, and their disciples of the Chan
lineage of China. The two most famous disciples of Hongren, Dajian Huineng
and Yuquan Shenxiu, both referred to themselves as continuing the East Mountain teaching. East Mountain gets its name from the East Mountain Temple on 'Shuangfeng' ("Twin Peaks") of Huangmei
. The East Mountain Temple was on the easternmost peak of the two.
The label "East Mountain Teaching" (Chinese: 東山法門, dong shan fa men) is literally translated as the East Mountain Dharma Gate and is also translated as the East Mountain School.
's Zen. Daoxin is credited with several important innovations that led directly to the ability of Zen to become a popular religion. Among his most important contributions were:
The tradition holds that Hongren left home at an early age (between seven and fourteen) and lived at East Mountain Temple on Twin Peaks, where Daoxiin was the abbot.
s, including the Heart and Diamond Sutras, along with the emphasis on the Lankavatara Sutra
handed down from Bohidharma.
Also, the view of the mind in the 'Awakening of Mahayana Faith' (Chinese: Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun) had a significant import on the doctrinal development of the East Mountain Teaching.
Though Hongren was known for not compiling writings and for teaching Zen principles orally, the classical Zen text Discourse on the Highest Vehicle, is attributed to him. This work emphasizes the practice of "maintaining the original true mind" that "naturally cuts off the arising of delusion."
In the first chapter of the Platform Sutra
, Huineng relates the story of his establishing his teaching career saying he opened the East Mountain Dharma gate because he gained the Dharma on East Mountain.
Shenxiu also called his Zen the continuation of the East Mountain teaching.
Eventually Shenhui's position won the day and Huineng was recognized as the Sixth Ancestor with the proviso that there would be no further "founding ancestors" after him.
The successful promulgation of Shenhui's views led to Shenxiu's branch being widely referred to by others as the "Northern School." This nomenclature has continued in western scholarship which for the most part has largely viewed Chinese Zen through the lens of southern Chan.
For those who consider the "Northern School" to be a pejorative label (implying the aphorism
: "suddenness of the South, gradualness of the North" (Chinese: nan-tun bei qian; Japanese: nanton hokuzen).), the term "East Mountain Teaching" is seen as more culturally and historically appropriate. The characterization of Shenxiu's East Mountain Teaching as gradualist is argued to be unfounded in light of the documents found amongst manuscripts
recovered from the Mogao Caves
near Dunhuang
. Dumoulin
, et al. (1988: p. 107) commenting on this aphorism state:
Kuiken (undated: p. 17) in discussing a Dunhuang document of the Tang
monk and meditator, 'Jingjue' (靜覺, 683- ca. 750) states:
Dumoulin (1993: p. 37) to redress the wronging of Fa-ju states:
. Because of Fa-ju the 'Shaolin Monastery' (Chinese: Shao-lin-ssu; Japanese: Shōrin-ji), constructed in 496CE, yet again became prominent. Fa-ju had only a brief stay at Shaolin Temple, but during his stay the cloister became the epicentre of the flourishing Chan movement. An epitaph
commemorating the success of Fa-ju's pioneering endeavours is located on Mount Sung.
Dumoulin
, et al. (1988: p. 108) hold that: "Fa-ju and his colleagues mark the beginning of the activity of Bodhidharma Zen masters in North China." Unfortunately, Fa-ju did not have a good publicist and he was not included within the list of Chan Patriarchs.
, et al. (1988: p. 108) hold that: "No doubt the most important personage within the Northern school is Shen-hsiu, a man of high education and widespread notoriety."
or 'Bao-tang Wu-zhu' (保唐无住) (Chinese: 無住; Wu-chu; 714-774CE), head and founder of Pao-t'ang Monastery (Chinese: 保唐寺) at Chengdu
, Szechwan located in south west China was a member of the East Mountain Teachings as was Reverend Kim (Chin ho-shang).
, which at the time belonged to the Tibetan Empire, in 781 or 787 CE. For Moheyan, this was a new opportunity for the spread of (Northern) Chan.
Adamek (2007: p. 288) provides a circa
five year range when Moheyan and Kamalashila debated at Samye
in Tibet:
Broughton (1983: p. 9) identifies the Chinese and Tibetan nomenclature of Mohoyen's teachings and identifies them principally with the East Mountain Teachings:
The teachings of Moheyan and other Chan masters were unified with the Kham
Dzogchen
lineages {this may or may not be congruent with the Kahma (Tibetan: bka' ma) lineages} through the Kunkhyen (Tibetan for "omniscient"), Rongzom Chokyi Zangpo.
The Dzogchen ("Great Perfection") School of the Nyingmapa was often identified with the 'sudden enlightenment' (Tibetan: cig car gyi ‘jug pa) of Moheyan and was called to defend itself against this charge by avowed members of the Sarma
lineages
that held to the staunch view of 'gradual enlightenmnent' (Tibetan: rim gyis ‘jug pa).
Print
Zen
Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen...
lineage of China. The two most famous disciples of Hongren, Dajian Huineng
Huineng
Dajian Huineng was a Chinese Chán monastic who is one of the most important figures in the entire tradition, according to standard Zen hagiographies...
and Yuquan Shenxiu, both referred to themselves as continuing the East Mountain teaching. East Mountain gets its name from the East Mountain Temple on 'Shuangfeng' ("Twin Peaks") of Huangmei
Huangmei
Huangmei County falls under the administration of Huanggang city municipality in eastern Hubei Province, and is adjacent to Anhui Province.-Huangmei opera:...
. The East Mountain Temple was on the easternmost peak of the two.
The label "East Mountain Teaching" (Chinese: 東山法門, dong shan fa men) is literally translated as the East Mountain Dharma Gate and is also translated as the East Mountain School.
Beginnings and Innovations at East Mountain
The East Mountain School was established by Daoxin at East Mountain Temple on Potou (Broken Head) Mountain which was later renamed Shuangfeng (Twin Peaks). Daoxin taught there for 30 years and established the first monastic home for BodhidharmaBodhidharma
Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th/6th century AD. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Ch'an to China, and regarded as the first Chinese patriarch...
's Zen. Daoxin is credited with several important innovations that led directly to the ability of Zen to become a popular religion. Among his most important contributions were:
1. The Unification of Zen practice with acceptance of the Buddhist precepts,
2. The unification of the teachings of the Lankavatara SutraLankavatara SutraThe Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is a sutra of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The sūtra recounts a teaching primarily between the Buddha and a bodhisattva named Mahāmati...
with those of the Mahaprajnaparamita SutraMahaprajnaparamita SutraThe Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra was an encyclopedic collection of Prajnaparamita texts, usually attributed to Nagarjuna, translated into Chinese by Xuanzang and his assistants. Alternatively, this name refers to the Large Sutra on the Perfection of Wisdom The Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra was an...
, which includes the well-known HeartHeart SutraThe Heart Sūtra is a Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtra. Its Sanskrit name literally translates to "Heart of the Perfection of Transcendent Wisdom." The Heart Sūtra is often cited as the best known and most popular of all Buddhist scriptures.-Introduction:The Heart Sūtra is a member of the Perfection of...
and DiamondDiamond SutraThe Diamond Sūtra , is a short and well-known Mahāyāna sūtra from the Prajñāpāramitā, or "Perfection of Wisdom" genre, and emphasizes the practice of non-abiding and non-attachment...
sutras,
3. The incorporation of chanting, including chanting the name of Buddha, into Zen practice.
The tradition holds that Hongren left home at an early age (between seven and fourteen) and lived at East Mountain Temple on Twin Peaks, where Daoxiin was the abbot.
Upon Daoxin's death [in 651 C.E]. at the age of seventy-two, Hongren assumed the abbacy. He then moved East Mountain Temple approximately ten kilometers east to the flanks of Mt. Pingmu. Soon, Hongren's fame eclipsed that of his teacher.
The Foundations of the East Mountain Teaching
An important aspect of the East Mountain Teachings was its nonreliance on a single Sutra or a single set of Sutras for its doctrinnal foundation as was done by most of the other Buddhist sects of the time. Following Daoxin, Hongren included an emphasis on the Mahaprajnaparamita SutraMahaprajnaparamita Sutra
The Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra was an encyclopedic collection of Prajnaparamita texts, usually attributed to Nagarjuna, translated into Chinese by Xuanzang and his assistants. Alternatively, this name refers to the Large Sutra on the Perfection of Wisdom The Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra was an...
s, including the Heart and Diamond Sutras, along with the emphasis on the Lankavatara Sutra
Lankavatara Sutra
The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is a sutra of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The sūtra recounts a teaching primarily between the Buddha and a bodhisattva named Mahāmati...
handed down from Bohidharma.
Also, the view of the mind in the 'Awakening of Mahayana Faith' (Chinese: Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun) had a significant import on the doctrinal development of the East Mountain Teaching.
Though Hongren was known for not compiling writings and for teaching Zen principles orally, the classical Zen text Discourse on the Highest Vehicle, is attributed to him. This work emphasizes the practice of "maintaining the original true mind" that "naturally cuts off the arising of delusion."
East Mountain Teaching Heirs
The Record of the Lankavatara Masters reports that Hongren said, "Of the countless students I have taught, many have passed away. There are only ten remining who will transmit my teaching." ." The most successful and famous among those named are Huineng, Shenxiu, and Zhixian.In the first chapter of the Platform Sutra
Platform Sutra
The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch , is a Buddhist scripture that was composed in China. It is one of the seminal texts in the Chan/Zen schools. It is centered on discourses given at Shao Zhou temple attributed to the sixth Chan patriarch, Huineng...
, Huineng relates the story of his establishing his teaching career saying he opened the East Mountain Dharma gate because he gained the Dharma on East Mountain.
Shenxiu also called his Zen the continuation of the East Mountain teaching.
Controversy Of the East Mountain Heirs
The disciples and heirs of Huineng and Shenxiu called their respective teachers the "Sixth Ancestor" carrying the mantle of Bodhidharma's Zen through the East Mountain School. After the deaths of Huineng and Shenxiu, the controversy between their disciples erupted with Heze Shenhui, the notable partisian of Huineng, carrying on a crusade to establish Huineng as the Sixth Ancestor. To distinguish the different claims of the two branches of the East Mountain Teaching flourishing in the south and north, each with a "Sixth Ancestor", Shenhui characterized the two schools of Huineng and Shenxiu as the Southern and Northern Schools respectively.Eventually Shenhui's position won the day and Huineng was recognized as the Sixth Ancestor with the proviso that there would be no further "founding ancestors" after him.
The successful promulgation of Shenhui's views led to Shenxiu's branch being widely referred to by others as the "Northern School." This nomenclature has continued in western scholarship which for the most part has largely viewed Chinese Zen through the lens of southern Chan.
For those who consider the "Northern School" to be a pejorative label (implying the aphorism
Aphorism
An aphorism is an original thought, spoken or written in a laconic and memorable form.The term was first used in the Aphorisms of Hippocrates...
: "suddenness of the South, gradualness of the North" (Chinese: nan-tun bei qian; Japanese: nanton hokuzen).), the term "East Mountain Teaching" is seen as more culturally and historically appropriate. The characterization of Shenxiu's East Mountain Teaching as gradualist is argued to be unfounded in light of the documents found amongst manuscripts
Dunhuang manuscripts
The Dunhuang manuscripts is a cache of important religious and secular documents discovered in the Mogao Caves of Dunhuang, China during the early 20th century. Dating from the 5th to early 11th centuries, the manuscripts include works ranging from history and mathematics to folk songs and dance...
recovered from the Mogao Caves
Mogao Caves
The Mogao Caves or Mogao Grottoes , also known as the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas , form a system of 492 temples southeast of the center of Dunhuang, an oasis strategically located at a religious and cultural crossroads on the Silk Road, in Gansu province, China...
near Dunhuang
Dunhuang
Dunhuang is a city in northwestern Gansu province, Western China. It was a major stop on the ancient Silk Road. It was also known at times as Shāzhōu , or 'City of Sands', a name still used today...
. Dumoulin
Heinrich Dumoulin
Heinrich Dumoulin, S.J. was a Jesuit theologian, a widely published author on Zen Buddhism, and a professor of philosophy and history at Sophia University in Tokyo, Japan...
, et al. (1988: p. 107) commenting on this aphorism state:
Contrary to first impressions, the formula has little to do with geography. Like the general designations of Mahāyāna ("great vehicle") and Hīnayāna ("little vehicle"), the formula carries with it a value judgement. According to the mainstream of later Zen, not only is sudden enlightenment incomparably superior to gradual experience but it represents true Zen - indeed, it is the very touchstone of authentic Zen.
Kuiken (undated: p. 17) in discussing a Dunhuang document of the Tang
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
monk and meditator, 'Jingjue' (靜覺, 683- ca. 750) states:
The aristocratic Tang monk and meditation teacher Jingjue wrote a collection of vitae of ten senior meditation teachers, all obviously outside the established meditation tradition of Mt Tiantai. Jingjue's surname was Wei 韋; he was a brother-in-law of emperor Zhongzong. Prior to 705 Shenxiu 神秀 ... was his tutor. After 708, Jingjue studied with the Pure Land teacher Xuanze 玄賾 (d. 725). Jingjue's memorial stele: Inscription for the stupa of Master Jingjue, the late Bhadanta of the National Monastery of Da' an 大唐大安國寺故大德靜覺師塔銘, was written by Wang Wei 王維 (701-761...). Jingjue's Record introduces Hongren of Huangmei 黃梅宏忍 (d.u.)
as the main teacher in the sixth generation of the 'southern' or 'East Mountain' meditation tradition. Shenxiu is mentioned as Hongren's authorized successor. In Shenxiu's shadow, Jingjue mentions 'old An' 老安 (see A) as a 'seasoned' meditation teacher and some minor 'local disciples' of Hongren. Unlike Jingjue suggests, Shenxiu and Dao'an were connected with Yuquan 玉泉 Abbey in Jingzhou 荊州 (Hubei), a meditation center related to the school at Mt Tiantai.
Dumoulin (1993: p. 37) to redress the wronging of Fa-ju states:
The consciousness of a unique line of transmission of Bodhidharma Zen, which is not yet demonstrable in the Bodhidharma treatise, grew during the seventh century and must have taken shape on the East Mountain prior to the death of the Fourth Patriarch Tao-hsin
(580-651). The earliest indication appears in the epitaph for Fa-ju (638-689), one of the outstanding disciples of the Fifth Patriarch Hung-jen (601-674). The author of the epitaph is not known, but the list comprises six names: after Bodhidharma and Hui-k'o follow Seng-ts'an, Tao-hsin, Hung-jen, and Fa-ju. The Ch'uan fa-pao chi takes this list over and adds as a seventh name that of Shen-hsiu (605?-706). In an epitaph for Shen-hsiu, his name is made to take the place of Fa-ju's. The Leng-ch'ieh shih-tzu chi omits Fa-ju and ends after Shen-hsiu with the name of his disciple P'u-chi (651-739). These indications from the Northern school argue for the succession of the Third Patriarch Seng-ts'an (d. 606), which has been thrown into doubt because of lacunae in the historical work of Tao-hsuan. Still, the matter cannot be settled with certainty.
Fa-ju/Fa-ru (法如, 638-689)
The East Mountain Teachings were founded by Fa-ju/Fa-ru (法如, 638-689) whose principal teachers were Hui-ming and Daman HongrenDaman Hongren
Daman Hongren was the 5th Chan Chán Patriarch in the traditional lineage of Chinese Chan. He is said to have received Dharma transmission from Daoxin and passed on the symbolic bowl and robe of transmission to Huineng, the Sixth and last Chan Patriarch...
. Because of Fa-ju the 'Shaolin Monastery' (Chinese: Shao-lin-ssu; Japanese: Shōrin-ji), constructed in 496CE, yet again became prominent. Fa-ju had only a brief stay at Shaolin Temple, but during his stay the cloister became the epicentre of the flourishing Chan movement. An epitaph
Epitaph
An epitaph is a short text honoring a deceased person, strictly speaking that is inscribed on their tombstone or plaque, but also used figuratively. Some are specified by the dead person beforehand, others chosen by those responsible for the burial...
commemorating the success of Fa-ju's pioneering endeavours is located on Mount Sung.
Dumoulin
Heinrich Dumoulin
Heinrich Dumoulin, S.J. was a Jesuit theologian, a widely published author on Zen Buddhism, and a professor of philosophy and history at Sophia University in Tokyo, Japan...
, et al. (1988: p. 108) hold that: "Fa-ju and his colleagues mark the beginning of the activity of Bodhidharma Zen masters in North China." Unfortunately, Fa-ju did not have a good publicist and he was not included within the list of Chan Patriarchs.
Shen-hsiu (神秀, 606?-706)
DumoulinHeinrich Dumoulin
Heinrich Dumoulin, S.J. was a Jesuit theologian, a widely published author on Zen Buddhism, and a professor of philosophy and history at Sophia University in Tokyo, Japan...
, et al. (1988: p. 108) hold that: "No doubt the most important personage within the Northern school is Shen-hsiu, a man of high education and widespread notoriety."
Proponents
Pao-t'ang Wu-chuPao-t'ang Wu-chu
Pao-t'ang Wu-chu or 'Bao-tang Wu-zhu' , head and founder of Pao-t'ang Monastery at Chengtu, Szechwan located in south west China...
or 'Bao-tang Wu-zhu' (保唐无住) (Chinese: 無住; Wu-chu; 714-774CE), head and founder of Pao-t'ang Monastery (Chinese: 保唐寺) at Chengdu
Chengdu
Chengdu , formerly transliterated Chengtu, is the capital of Sichuan province in Southwest China. It holds sub-provincial administrative status...
, Szechwan located in south west China was a member of the East Mountain Teachings as was Reverend Kim (Chin ho-shang).
Moheyan
Moheyan (late eighth century CE) was a propoent of the East Mountain Teachings which were in decline in China having been attacked by Heze Shenhui (a student of Dajian Huineng) as a supposed "gradual enlightenment" teaching, Moheyan traveled to DunhuangDunhuang
Dunhuang is a city in northwestern Gansu province, Western China. It was a major stop on the ancient Silk Road. It was also known at times as Shāzhōu , or 'City of Sands', a name still used today...
, which at the time belonged to the Tibetan Empire, in 781 or 787 CE. For Moheyan, this was a new opportunity for the spread of (Northern) Chan.
Adamek (2007: p. 288) provides a circa
Circa
Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date...
five year range when Moheyan and Kamalashila debated at Samye
Samye
The Samye Monastery or Samye Gompa is the first Buddhist monastery built in Tibet, was most probably first constructed between 775 and 779 CE under the patronage of King Trisong Detsen of Tibet who sought to revitalize Buddhism, which had declined since its introduction by King Songtsen Gampo in...
in Tibet:
As is well known, the fate of Chan [East Mountain Teachings] in Tibet was said to have been decided in a debate at the Samye monastery near Lhasa in c.792-797.
Broughton (1983: p. 9) identifies the Chinese and Tibetan nomenclature of Mohoyen's teachings and identifies them principally with the East Mountain Teachings:
Mo-ho-yen's teaching in Tibet as the famed proponent of the all-at-once gate can be summarized as "gazing-at-mind" ([Chinese:] k'an-hsin... = [Tibetan:] sems la bltas) and "no examining" ([Chinese:] pu-kuan... = [Tibetan:] myi rtog pa) or "no-thought no-examining" ([Chinese:] pu-ssu pu-kuan... = [Tibetan:] myi bsam myi rtog). "Gazing-at-mind" is an original Northern (or East Mountain Dharma Gate) teaching. As will become clear, Poa-t'ang and the Northern Ch'an dovetail in the Tibetan sources. Mo-ho-yen's teaching seems typical of late Northern Ch'an. It should be noted that Mo-ho-yen arrived on the central Tibetan scene somewhat late in comparison to the Ch'an transmissions from Szechwan.
The teachings of Moheyan and other Chan masters were unified with the Kham
Kham
Kham , is a historical region covering a land area largely divided between present-day Tibetan Autonomous Region and Sichuan province, with smaller portions located within Qinghai, Gansu and Yunnan provinces of China. During the Republic of China's rule over mainland China , most of the region was...
Dzogchen
Dzogchen
According to Tibetan Buddhism and Bön, Dzogchen is the natural, primordial state or natural condition of the mind, and a body of teachings and meditation practices aimed at realizing that condition. Dzogchen, or "Great Perfection", is a central teaching of the Nyingma school also practiced by...
lineages {this may or may not be congruent with the Kahma (Tibetan: bka' ma) lineages} through the Kunkhyen (Tibetan for "omniscient"), Rongzom Chokyi Zangpo.
The Dzogchen ("Great Perfection") School of the Nyingmapa was often identified with the 'sudden enlightenment' (Tibetan: cig car gyi ‘jug pa) of Moheyan and was called to defend itself against this charge by avowed members of the Sarma
Sarma (Tibetan Buddhism)
Sarma In Tibetan Buddhism, the Sarma schools include the three newest of the four main schools, comprising:*Kagyu*Sakya*Kadam/Gelukand their sub-branches.The Nyingma school is the sole Ngagyur or "old translation," school....
lineages
Lineage (Buddhism)
An authentic lineage in Buddhism is the uninterrupted transmission of the Buddha's Dharma from teacher to disciple.The transmission itself can be for example oral, scriptural, through signs, or directly from one mind to another....
that held to the staunch view of 'gradual enlightenmnent' (Tibetan: rim gyis ‘jug pa).
See also
- Trisong DetsenTrisong DetsenTrisong Detsän or Trisong Detsen ཁྲི་སྲོང་ལྡེ་བཙན , was the son of Me Agtsom and one of the emperors of Tibet and ruled...
(755 - 797 or 804 CE) - Shenxiu (Chinese: 神秀; c606-706)
- Rongzompa
- Yequan ShenxiuYequan ShenxiuYuquan Shenxiu was one of the most influential Chan Buddhist masters of his day, a patriarch of the "East Mountain Dharma Gate" — the East Mountain Teaching was given the more recent designation as the "Northern School" by Shenhui...
- Mount Wutai
- Namkhai NyingpoNamkhai NyingpoNamkhai Nyingpo is counted amongst the principal 'twenty-five disciples' of Padmasambhava...
- Matsumoto, Shiro (松本史郞) (undated). Critical Considerations on Zen Thought. Komazawa UniversityKomazawa UniversityKomazawa University is one of the oldest universities in Japan. Its history starts in 1592, when a seminary was established to be a center of learning for the young monks of the Sōtō sect, one of the two main Zen Buddhist traditions in Japan.The university in Tokyo campus comprises eight faculties...
. Source: http://kr.buddhism.org/zen/koan/Shiro_Matsumoto.htm (accessed: January 25, 2008) - Poceski, Mario (undated). Attitudes Towards Canonicity and Religious Authority in Tang Chan. University of FloridaUniversity of FloridaThe University of Florida is an American public land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant research university located on a campus in Gainesville, Florida. The university traces its historical origins to 1853, and has operated continuously on its present Gainesville campus since September 1906...
. Source: http://www.acmuller.net/zen-sem/poceski-2002.html (accessed: January 25, 2008) - Dumoulin, HeinrichHeinrich DumoulinHeinrich Dumoulin, S.J. was a Jesuit theologian, a widely published author on Zen Buddhism, and a professor of philosophy and history at Sophia University in Tokyo, Japan...
(author); Heisig, James W. (trans.) & Knitter, Paul (trans.)(1988). Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1 India and China. New York, N.Y.: Macmillan Publishing Company. ISBN 0-02-908230-7 (2 vol. set; paper) - McRae, John R.(1983). The Northern School of Chinese Chan Buddhism. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University.
- Faure, Bernard (1997). The Will to Orthodoxy: A Critical Genealogy of Northern Chan Buddhism. Translated by Phyllis Brooks, Stanford, Stanford University Press.
- Adamek, Wendi L. (2007). The Mystique of Transmission: On an Early Chan History and its Contents. New York, Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13664-8
- Cole, Alan,(2009). Fathering Your Father: The Zen of Fabrication in Tang Buddhism. Berkeley, University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25485-5
Electronic
- Zeuschner, Robert B.(1978). "The understanding of mind in the Northern line of Ch'an (Zen)" in Philosophy East and West, Vol.28, No.1. Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press. Source: http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/zens.htm (accessed: August 6, 2008)
- Poceski, Mario (2007). Patterns of Engagement with Chan Teachings Among the Mid-Tang Literati. Association of Asian Studies Annual Meeting, Boston 2007. “Intersections of Buddhist Practice, Art, and Culture in Tang China” Panel. University of Florida. Source: http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/mpoceski/MP-AAS07-Chan&Literati.pdf (accessed: January 25, 2008)
- Kuiken, Kees (undated). The Other Neng 2: Part Two Sources and Resources. Source: http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/theology/2002/c.j.kuiken/pt2.pdf (accessed: August 6, 2008)
- Dumoulin, Heinrich (1993). "Early Chinese Zen Reexamined ~ A Supplement to 'Zen Buddhism: A History'" in Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1993 20/1. Source: http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/387.pdf (accessed: August 6, 2008)
- Schlütter, Morten (2007). 'Transmission and Enlightenment in Chan Buddhism Seen Through the Platform Sūtra (Liuzu tanjing 六祖壇經).' Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, no. 20, pp. 379–410 (2007). Taipei: Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies. Source: http://www.chibs.edu.tw/publication/chbj/20/chbj2013.pdf (accessed: Saturday April 11, 2009)