Bling Ring
Encyclopedia
The Bling Ring, sometimes referred to as the "Hollywood Hills Burglar Bunch", "The Burglar Bunch", or the "Hollywood Hills Burglars", were a group, mostly of teenagers based in and around Calabasas, California
Calabasas, California
Calabasas is an affluent city in Los Angeles County, California in the western United States. It is located in the hills in the southwestern San Fernando Valley and the Santa Monica Mountains between Woodland Hills, Agoura Hills, West Hills, and Malibu, California. As of the 2010 census, the city...

, who burglarized the homes of several celebrities over a period believed to have been from around October 2008 through August 2009. In total, their activities resulted in the theft of about $3 million in cash and belongings, most of it from Paris Hilton
Paris Hilton
Paris Whitney Hilton is an American businesswoman, heiress, and socialite. She is a great-granddaughter of Conrad Hilton . Hilton is known for her controversial participation in a sex tape in 2003, and appearance on the television series The Simple Life alongside fellow socialite and childhood...

, whom they robbed several times. However, over 50 homes were reportedly targeted for potential burglary. Nancy Jo Sales
Nancy Jo Sales
Nancy Jo Sales is a US writer who has written articles for The New York Times Magazine, New York, People magazine, and Vanity Fair.-Career:...

, who covered the story for Vanity Fair
Vanity Fair (magazine)
Vanity Fair is a magazine of pop culture, fashion, and current affairs published by Condé Nast. The present Vanity Fair has been published since 1983 and there have been editions for four European countries as well as the U.S. edition. This revived the title which had ceased publication in 1935...

, called the events "completely unprecedented in the history of Hollywood".

Rachel Lee

The alleged ringleader of the group, Lee is the daughter of divorced immigrant Vickie Kwon, originally from North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...

, and David Lee, originally from South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...

. Both parents own successful businesses. Lee lived in Calabasas with her mother, who owns a franchise of Kumon, a tutoring company. Her father is based in Las Vegas, Nevada
Las Vegas, Nevada
Las Vegas is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Nevada and is also the county seat of Clark County, Nevada. Las Vegas is an internationally renowned major resort city for gambling, shopping, and fine dining. The city bills itself as The Entertainment Capital of the World, and is famous...

. Lee and her older sister Candace had a privileged upbringing, and she drove a white Audi A4
Audi A4
The first generation Audi A4 debuted in 1994, with production starting November 1994. It was built on the Volkswagen Group B5 platform, which it shared with the fourth generation Volkswagen Passat . It had a front-mounted longitudinal engine and front-wheel drive...

 to school, where she was named "Best Dressed" in the 2007 yearbook. When she was in her early teens, her mother remarried, but she and her stepfather did not get along. She attended Indian Hills, an alternative school
Alternative school
Alternative school is the name used in some parts of the world to describe an institution which provides part of alternative education. It is an educational establishment with a curriculum and methods that are nontraditional...

, because she had been expelled from Calabasas High School, and upon graduating was awarded a creative arts scholarship. A year after graduation, she was fined and put on probation for a petty theft incident in which she and Diana Tamayo stole $85 of merchandise from Sephora
Sephora
Sephora is a chain of cosmetics stores founded in France in 1970 and acquired by Paris-based conglomerate LVMH in 1997. The Sephora chain includes more than 750 stores in 17 countries...

. According to Prugo, Lee was obsessed with reality television
Reality television
Reality television is a genre of television programming that presents purportedly unscripted dramatic or humorous situations, documents actual events, and usually features ordinary people instead of professional actors, sometimes in a contest or other situation where a prize is awarded...

. Towards the end of the crime spree, Lee moved to Las Vegas to live with her father, which is where she was eventually taken into police custody.

Nick Prugo

Nicholas Frank Prugo was reported to be a shy and friendless teen prescribed Concerta for ADHD and Zoloft for anxiety, who was transferred to Indian Hills high school after being expelled from Calabasas High School for excessive absences.
In 2003, Prugo had a role as "Kenny" in Little Lost Souls: Children Possessed, a made-for-TV quasi-documentary about the exorcism
Exorcism
Exorcism is the religious practice of evicting demons or other spiritual entities from a person or place which they are believed to have possessed...

 of children whose parents believe them to be possessed by evil.
Lee befriended Prugo after he arrived at Indian Hills, and introduced him to most of the other people who would eventually join the crime spree. The two initially bonded over their love of fashion, and Prugo claims to have been infatuated with her. After being accepted into her circle of friends and participating in their nightlife activities, Prugo became hooked on drugs, and began stealing from his parents to support his addiction. Their first home robbery together occurred during the summer after tenth grade, when he claims that Lee suggested they rob an acquaintance from Woodland Hills whom Prugo knew to be out of town at the time. Prugo claims to have been reluctant, but didn’t want to risk losing her friendship.
During that first burglary, they discovered $8000 in cash hidden under a bed. They split the money, and the next day went on a shopping spree on Rodeo Drive
Rodeo Drive
Rodeo Drive of Beverly Hills, California is a shopping district known for designer label and haute couture fashion. The name generally refers to a three-block long stretch of boutiques and shops but the street stretches further north and south....

.
Prugo and Lee began checking the doors of expensive cars parked in their neighborhood, to see if they were unlocked, on an almost nightly basis. They would take credit cards found in the cars, and go shopping the next day in areas like Melrose Avenue
Melrose Avenue
Melrose Avenue is an internationally renowned shopping, dining and entertainment destination in Los Angeles that starts from Santa Monica Boulevard at the border between Beverly Hills and West Hollywood and ends at Lucille Avenue in Silver Lake...

. They would be dressed well, and according to Prugo, merchants never questioned their use of the cards.

Alexis Neiers

Alexis Neiers
Alexis Neiers
Alexis Christine Neiers is a television personality, aspiring model, and convicted felon. She was featured on E!'s reality series Pretty Wild with her mother, Andrea Arlington-Dunne, and sisters Gabby Neiers and Tess Taylor....

 had been part of Lee’s social circle at Indian Hills. At one point, she was kicked out of her home by her mother for, according to police, smoking OxyContin, which she denies. Prugo took her in, and she claims that although she knew her circle of friends were committing the crimes, she only became inadvertently involved when, while drunk, she unknowingly accompanied Prugo to what turned out to be a burglary of Orlando Bloom’s home. She claimed that police searched her home and found nothing. However, police reported that they found stolen items in the possession of Neiers, her sister Gabrielle, and their sister, (through adoption), Tess Taylor, and that she was caught on camera leaving the scene of the crime with stolen bags in her possession. She initially denied any wrongdoing, but later changed her plea in court to no contest.

Diana Tamayo

Diana Tamayo was, in 2008, the student body President at Indian Hills, where she had been voted "best smile", and been awarded a $1,500 "Future Teacher" scholarship after graduation. She was also known for getting into fights, and according to police was an illegal Mexican immigrant. However, she was apparently affluent enough to own a Lincoln Navigator
Lincoln Navigator
The Lincoln Navigator is a full-size luxury SUV built by the Ford Motor Company for its luxury division, Lincoln. Introduced as a 1998 model, production began May 14, 1997 with sales beginning in August. The Navigator was Lincoln's first SUV as well as its first four-wheel drive capable vehicle...

. Along with Lee, she had been fined and put on probation for engaging in petty theft. According to Prugo, her entire wardrobe consisted of stolen items. Her small size was utilized during one robbery in which she gained the group access to a home by crawling through a dog door
Dog door
A dog door is a hinged or spring operated door rather than the more commonly known 'flap' set into a door, wall or window to allow dogs to enter and exit a house on their own without needing a person to open the door. Flaps are hung from the top of the opening and do exactly that - flap. Dog doors...

.

Courtney Ames

Courtney Ames, whose stepfather is boxer Randy Shields, was a Calabasas High School student and an "old friend" of Lee’s. It was through Ames that the others met Lopez and Ajar, her boyfriend.

Johnny Ajar

Ajar, a former convict nicknamed "Johnny Dangerous", is not believed to have participated in the burglaries, but was recruited by Ames, his girlfriend, to sell some of the stolen items for cash. He was raised in housing projects around Reseda, outside of the group’s community, the son of a father who was a career criminal and drug addict. He had previously spent 2 years in federal prison, having been convicted for drug trafficking in Wyoming at age 22. Ajar first met Ames and her friends at a nightclub called The Green Door, and allowed them access even though they used fake IDs. At the time of the burglaries, he worked as a promoter for club Les Deux Café.

Roy Lopez, Jr.

Lopez and Ames had worked together at a restaurant and bar in Calabasas. Ames had recruited him as a reseller, and he also participated in burgling at least one victim, Paris Hilton
Paris Hilton
Paris Whitney Hilton is an American businesswoman, heiress, and socialite. She is a great-granddaughter of Conrad Hilton . Hilton is known for her controversial participation in a sex tape in 2003, and appearance on the television series The Simple Life alongside fellow socialite and childhood...

, from whom he is alleged to have stolen $2 million in jewelry, which he carried out with him in a Louis Vuitton
Louis Vuitton
Louis Vuitton Malletier – commonly referred to as Louis Vuitton , or shortened to LV – is a French fashion house founded in 1854 by Louis Vuitton. The label is well known for its LV monogram, which is featured on most products, ranging from luxury trunks and leather goods to ready-to-wear, shoes,...

 bag. He was unable to sell off most of it.

Reported victims

Victims were targeted due to their being considered fashion icons by members of the group. Their primary targets were female, having been chosen, in the words of Prugo, "mainly because [of] women wanting women's stuff". If the members liked a celebrity’s style, they became determined to steal the celebrity’s clothes. Lee referred to their capers as "going shopping". They found the houses of their targets using Google Maps
Google Maps
Google Maps is a web mapping service application and technology provided by Google, free , that powers many map-based services, including the Google Maps website, Google Ride Finder, Google Transit, and maps embedded on third-party websites via the Google Maps API...

 and website celebrityaddressaerial.com, and determined when the inhabitants would be away by researching their schedules, such as appearances at celebrity events, through websites including Facebook and Twitter. When Lee wanted to add to her wardrobe or more cash was desired, a burglary would be undertaken. The LAPD report later stated that what began as a "twisted adventure" fueled by celebrity worship "quickly mushroomed into an organized criminal enterprise." In the words of Neiers, Lee "was so manipulating, so conniving. Nick always did what she said. Rachel was in charge. She started it all."

Paris Hilton

For their first celebrity target, Prugo claims that he and Lee asked themselves "who would leave a door unlocked? Who would leave a lot of money lying around?", and chose Paris Hilton because they figured she was "dumb". On their maiden trip to Hilton’s home, Prugo and Lee went alone, having used Google Earth
Google Earth
Google Earth is a virtual globe, map and geographical information program that was originally called EarthViewer 3D, and was created by Keyhole, Inc, a Central Intelligence Agency funded company acquired by Google in 2004 . It maps the Earth by the superimposition of images obtained from satellite...

 to find a place to access her community via a hill climb. They went up to the front door and tried ringing the doorbell
Doorbell
A doorbell is a signaling device typically placed near a door. Most doorbells emit a ringing sound to alert the occupant of the building to a visitor's presence, when the visitor presses a button. Many modern doorbells are electric — they are actuated by an electric switch...

 to see if anyone was there. They discovered a key under the doormat
Mat
A mat is a generic term for a piece of fabric or flat material, generally placed on a floor or other flat surface, and serving a range of purposes including:* providing a regular or flat surface, such as a mousepad....

, but then realized it wasn’t needed because the door was unlocked. Once inside, Prugo served as a lookout
Lookout
A lookout or look-out is a person on a ship in charge of the observation of the sea for hazards, other ships, land, etc. Lookouts report anything they see and or hear. When reporting contacts, lookouts give information such as, bearing of the object, which way the object is headed, target angles...

 near the stairs while Lee went into the bedroom and searched through Hilton’s belongings.
Prugo and Lee, later accompanied by other members of their group, ended up robbing Hilton at least 5 different times, mostly of designer clothing and cash. However, it wasn’t until Lopez single-handedly stole nearly $2 million in jewelry from Hilton that she reported having been burgled. Antics during the Hilton robberies included snorting cocaine which Prugo claims they found inside the residence. According to Ames, at one point Prugo discovered that he could fit into Hilton’s footwear, and did a "victory dance" wearing a pair of her heels.

Audrina Patridge

The ring burgled the home of Audrina Patridge
Audrina Patridge
Audrina Cathleen Patridge is an American reality television personality, actress, and model. She is known for being one of the four original primary cast members featured on the MTV reality series The Hills. She has also starred in the films Sorority Row and Into The Blue 2...

 the night of February 22, 2009, the date of that year’s Academy Awards
Academy Awards
An Academy Award, also known as an Oscar, is an accolade bestowed by the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to recognize excellence of professionals in the film industry, including directors, actors, and writers...

 ceremony. They accessed her home in Hollywood Hills
Hollywood Hills
The Hollywood Hills is an affluent and exclusive neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, in the southeastern Santa Monica Mountains. It is bound by Laurel Canyon Boulevard to the west, Vermont Avenue to the east, Mulholland Drive to the north, and Sunset Boulevard to the south.-Hollywood Hills...

 by entering through an unlocked door, and took jewelry, her passport, her laptop, and bespoke
Bespoke
Bespoke is a term employed in a variety of applications to mean an item custom-made to the buyer's specification...

-tailored jeans. The value of what they took was estimated to amount to around $43,000.
Lee and Prugo were recorded on Patridge’s surveillance videos, which she uploaded to her website. Despite the videos being posted, the burglaries continued.

Rachel Bilson

Rachel Bilson
Rachel Bilson
Rachel Sarah Bilson is an American actress. Bilson grew up in a California show business family, and made her television debut in 2003, subsequently becoming well known for playing Summer Roberts on the prime time drama series The O.C. Bilson made her film debut in the 2006 film The Last Kiss and...

’s home was burgled by the group three to six times during April and May 2009, amounting to between $130,000 and $300,000 of stolen property. Prugo claimed to have always been very nervous during the burglaries, but said that Lee was always very calm and focused—so much so that during a burglary of Bilson’s home on May 9, Lee went into Bilson’s bathroom and had a bowel movement.

The Bilson burglaries yielded so much in the way of clothes and accessories that members tried to relieve themselves of some of it by selling it at the Venice Beach boardwalk, where they were able to make a few thousand dollars.

Orlando Bloom and Miranda Kerr

Orlando Bloom
Orlando Bloom
Orlando Jonathan Blanchard Bloom is an English actor. He had his break-through roles in 2001 as the elf-prince Legolas in The Lord of the Rings and starring in 2003 as blacksmith Will Turner in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series, and subsequently established himself as a lead in Hollywood...

’s home was targeted by the ring on July 13, 2009, due to the presence of his then-live-in girlfriend (and future wife), Victoria’s Secret model Miranda Kerr
Miranda Kerr
Miranda May Kerr is an Australian model. She is best known as one of the Victoria's Secret Angels since mid-2007. She is the first Australian to participate in the Victoria's Secret campaign and also represents Australian fashion chain David Jones...

, whose lingerie Lee wanted. Prugo, Neiers, Lee and Tamayo accessed the premises by cutting through a security fence. Once inside, they found and stole a large amount of high fashion-label clothing, as well as Bloom’s Rolex
Rolex
Rolex SA is a Swiss watchmaking manufacturer of high-quality, luxury wristwatches. Rolex watches are popularly regarded as status symbols and BusinessWeek magazine ranks Rolex No.71 on its 2007 annual list of the 100 most valuable global brands...

 watch collection, Louis Vuitton
Louis Vuitton
Louis Vuitton Malletier – commonly referred to as Louis Vuitton , or shortened to LV – is a French fashion house founded in 1854 by Louis Vuitton. The label is well known for its LV monogram, which is featured on most products, ranging from luxury trunks and leather goods to ready-to-wear, shoes,...

 luggage, and artworks, all totaling nearly half a million dollars. Neiers, who denies having gone there knowingly, claimed to have been drunk at the time, and was reported as having gone outside to vomit and then urinate in the bushes. Tamayo and Lee went back inside because the latter was planning to move to her father’s home in Las Vegas, and wanted Bloom’s art to decorate with.

Brian Austin Green and Megan Fox

Brian Austin Green
Brian Austin Green
Brian Austin Green is an American actor, best known for his portrayal of David Silver on the television series Beverly Hills, 90210, a role he played from 1990 to 2000. Green also starred in the sitcom Freddie and Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles. Since 2009, he has appeared in a recurring...

’s home was targeted because, according to Prugo, Lee liked the clothes of his live-in girlfriend (future wife), actress Megan Fox
Megan Fox
Megan Denise Fox is an American actress and model. She began her acting career in 2001 with several minor television and film roles, and played a regular role on Hope & Faith. In 2004, she launched her film career with a role in Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen...

. While there, the group also found and took Green’s Sig Sauer .380, a semi-automatic handgun, which police later found in the possession of Ajar.

Lindsay Lohan

Even though by August 2009 Lee had moved into her father’s place in Las Vegas, she felt compelled to return to California for yet another burglary, the target being Lindsay Lohan
Lindsay Lohan
Lindsay Lohan is an American actress, pop singer and model. She began her career as a child fashion model before making her motion picture debut in Disney's 1998 remake of The Parent Trap at the age of 11...

, who was apparently Lee’s "ultimate fashion icon" and "biggest conquest". On the 23rd, Lee, Prugo and Tamayo allegedly stole around $130,000 worth of clothes and jewelry from Lohan’s home in Hollywood Hills. According to Prugo, Tamayo and Lee were "freaking out" over Lohan’s things. By that time, they were well-publicized criminals at large, and Prugo was especially worried about the burglary, knowing that if they were captured by surveillance cameras stealing from the star’s home, the footage would be widely seen.

Investigation and criminal proceedings

An unidentified tipster informed police that Lee and Prugo were responsible for the Lohan burglary. Prugo’s face had been captured on surveillance at the home, and the police determined through Facebook that Lee and Prugo were friends. Prugo was arrested, and initially denied having had anything to do with the burglaries, but said that anxiety due to his involvement was preventing him from being able to eat, sleep, and breathe normally, and made him lose his hair. He confessed to the police without first getting a plea deal, telling them about crimes they were not even aware had been committed. He also told them that other potential targets were still being researched by the ring, among them Miley Cyrus
Miley Cyrus
Miley Ray Cyrus is an American actress and pop singer-songwriter. She achieved wide fame for her role as Miley Stewart/Hannah Montana on the Disney Channel sitcom Hannah Montana....

, Zac Efron
Zac Efron
Zachary David Alexander "Zac" Efron is an American actor. He began acting professionally in the early 2000s and became known with his lead roles in the Disney Channel Original Movie High School Musical, the WB series Summerland, and the 2007 film version of the Broadway musical Hairspray...

, Hilary Duff
Hilary Duff
Hilary Erhard Duff is an American actress, singer-songwriter, entrepreneur, and author. After working in local theater plays and television commercials in her childhood, she achieved fame playing the title role in the Disney Channel television series Lizzie McGuire. She also reprised her role in...

, and Vanessa Hudgens.

Two weeks after Prugo’s confessions, search warrants for the other ring participants were issued by the LAPD.
Lee, Tamayo, Ames, Neiers, and Lopez were all subsequently arrested for their connection to the burglaries.
Lee was taken into custody while at her father’s home in Las Vegas. Police reported that she calmly asked them hypothetical questions about how it might help her if she did in fact have information and shared that information with police. Their report stated that she clearly believed she’d removed all incriminating evidence from her home. However, cops found a coat identified as belonging to Lohan, and topless pictures of Hilton which had been left in an unlocked safe in Hilton’s home. Seeing this, Lee is reported to have instantly turned hysterical, acting as though she were suddenly sick, and gagging as though she were going to vomit. Other items reported to have been seized from Lee were a jar of marijuana and more than $20,000 in $100 bills.

People magazine reported that the members of the ring except for Lee were booked for residential burglary, with bail set at $50,000, while Lee was held for "possession of stolen property", with bail set at only $3,000. However, writer Nancy Jo Sales reported in Vanity Fair that Lee was charged with residential burglary for the Lohan, Hilton, and Patridge heists. At the time of the arrests it was unclear whether the robbery of Bilson, and other robberies of Kourtney Kardashian
Kourtney Kardashian
Kourtney Mary Kardashian is an American businesswoman, socialite, model, actress and reality television personality who gained fame as a cast member of Keeping Up with the Kardashians, Kourtney and Kim Take New York, and Kourtney and Khloé Take Miami.She is the oldest child of Kris Jenner and...

 and Hayden Panettiere
Hayden Panettiere
Hayden Leslie Panettiere is an American actress and singer, best known as cheerleader Claire Bennet on the NBC television series Heroes. She began her acting career by playing Sarah Roberts on One Life to Live , and Lizzie Spaulding on Guiding Light , before starring at age 10 as Sheryl Yoast in...

 had been committed by the group. Among items reportedly seized by police from Ajar were three guns, drugs, and a laptop with aerial photos of 51 homes in Hollywood Hills. He was thus charged with additional offenses related to weapons and drug possession. Whereas Lee was reportedly sentenced to three counts of residential burglary, Prugo was charged with seven, each count carrying sentences between 2 and 6 years.

All members initially pleaded not guilty. Neiers, however, after learning that Bloom would be called to testify against her, agreed to plead no contest
Nolo contendere
is a legal term that comes from the Latin for "I do not wish to contend." It is also referred to as a plea of no contest.In criminal trials, and in some common law jurisdictions, it is a plea where the defendant neither admits nor disputes a charge, serving as an alternative to a pleading of...

 to residential burglary, and was sentenced to a jail term of 180 days, with an additional three years of probation, as well as being ordered to pay $600,000 worth of restitution to the actor. After serving 30 days of her jail sentence in the Century Regional Detention Facility, she was released.

Bling Ring Movie

Bling Ring, a Dick Clark Productions
Dick Clark Productions
Dick Clark Productions is an entertainment production company founded by entertainer Dick Clark...

 and directed by Michael Lembeck
Michael Lembeck
Michael Lembeck is an actor, television and film director.Lembeck was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Caroline and Harvey Lembeck, an actor and comedian. He began acting in the late-1960s and directing in the 1970s. His most notable acting role was as Julie Cooper's husband, Max Horvath, on...

 who previously directed Tooth Fairy
Tooth fairy
The tooth fairy is a fantasy figure of early childhood. The folklore states that when a child loses a baby tooth, if he or she places it beneath the bed pillow, the tooth fairy will visit while the child sleeps, replacing the lost tooth with a small payment....

and The Santa Clause 3, follows a group of young burglars as they target the homes of some of Hollywood’s most prominent celebrities. Alex Feldman portrays Vin Savage, a Hollywood insider and party promoter who facilitates the high life for the young criminals. Before getting caught on home security cameras which leads to their arrest, the gang steals millions of dollars in cash and jewelry, and grabs the fascination of the entire country. The names of everyone in the film have been changed due to legal reasons and the film stars Jennifer Grey
Jennifer Grey
Jennifer Elise Grey is an American actress. Her first major roles came in the 1984 war film Red Dawn and the 1986 comedy Ferris Bueller's Day Off. In 1987 she starred as Frances "Baby" Houseman in the hit film Dirty Dancing for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe. In the early 1990s, Grey...

 as Iris Garvey who plays the mother to one of the young thieves, Zack Garvey played by Austin Butler
Austin Butler
Austin Robert Butler is an American actor, singer, and model. He is best known for his feature films roles as Jake Pearson in Aliens in the Attic and as Peyton Leverette in the High School Musical spin-off film Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure, as well as for his television roles as James on Zoey 101,...

.

See also

  • Delinquent
    Delinquent
    Delinquent or delinquents may refer to:* Law** A person who commits a misdemeanor** A person who commits a felony** A juvenile delinquent, often shortened as delinquent is a young person who fails to do that which is required by law; see juvenile delinquency* A person who fails to pay a debt or...

  • Law & Order: Los Angeles
    Law & Order: Los Angeles
    Law & Order: LA, originally titled Law & Order: Los Angeles, is an American police procedural and legal drama television series set in Los Angeles, where it was produced...

    premiere episode (air date: September 29, 2010) bases a Hollywood crime circle on the Bling Ring

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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