Baraita of Samuel
Encyclopedia
A Baraita of Samuel was known to Jewish scholars from Shabbethai Donolo in the 10th century to Simon Duran in the 15th century, and citations from it were made by them. It was considered as lost until around 1900, when it unexpectedly appeared in print.
In its present form, the Baraita is composed of nine chapters, treating astronomy
and astrology
. The first chapter deals with the form of heaven, of Orion
, of the Pleiades
, of Draco
, and of the planets and their light. The second and third treat of the movements of the moon
and the course of the Zodiac
. At the same time directions are given for adjusting the gnomon of a sun-dial. The fourth defines the character of the seasons and the planets; the fifth, the orbits of the planets. Directions are given for calculating Molad
and Teḳufah
. The sixth imparts the teachings of the Egyptian
sages on the original position of the planets and the division of the Zodiac. The seventh chapter mentions the exact distances of the planets from the Earth
: the moon is considered the nearest; Saturn
, the most distant. The eighth chapter deals with the altitudes of the planets. The ninth chapter discusses the influence of the heavenly bodies on earthly affairs. It is conceded that "the planets in themselves can not make for good or evil, unless empowered by God."
The older scholars considered the author of the Baraita to be the amora
Samuel bar Abba, who, according to the statements in the Talmud
, was a great astronomer (it is doubtful whether Kuzari
, iv. 29, refers to an actual astronomical work of Samuel, or to his astronomical knowledge). The newer editions have Samuel ha-Ḳaṭan as the author. This is hardly based on a tradition, but rather is due to a combination of the name "Samuel" with Samuel ha-Ḳaṭan, who is mentioned as possessing knowledge of the Ibbur (Sanh. 11a). These suggestions of names have no material value. The very contents and language of the Baraita contradict the assumption that it is the work of amoraim or tannaim
. Moreover, ch. v. designates the year 4536 (=776 C.E.) as the one which, with but a slight difference, resembles the year of the Creation. The courses of the sun and moon, leap-years, and Teḳufah will repeat themselves, and calculations must begin anew from this year.
The earliest date, then, at which the Baraita could have been written is 776. It is more difficult to determine the latest date. This question is connected with that of the relationship of the Baraita to the Pirḳe de-Rabbi Eliezer
. Some have endeavored to conclude, from citations of the Baraita by Abraham ben Ḥiyyah and Judah ha-Levi, that the Baraita and the Pirḳe de-Rabbi Eliezer originally formed one work. The portions of the Baraita now existing prove clearly that the two are fundamentally different; neither diction, subject, character, nor aim of the two works bearing any resemblance. There is, however, distinct kinship between the two astronomic chapters of the Pirḳe de-Rabbi Eliezer (vi. and vii.) and the Baraita of Samuel; but it cannot be decided which author borrowed from the other. In fact, there may have been a third source from which both drew. Zunz
supposes that the astronomic chapters in the Pirḳe originally had a slightly varying form from that of the Baraita, and that portions from each found their way into the other. This would explain how Abraham b. Ḥiyyah came to designate a Baraita as being the work of Samuel and R. Eliezer. It is certain, however, that all that is known at present (as of 1906) consists of fragments of the Samuel Baraita.
Steinschneider correctly characterizes the Baraita as somewhat fantastic in its conception of the construction of the world, containing Talmudic elements, but uninfluenced by Greco-Arabic science. Its unscientific, half-mystic tendency caused it to be thrust aside in the Orient through the rising Arabic science, while in Europe, especially in France
and Germany
, it was regarded with special respect. From constituents of the Baraita joined with various elements of mysticism originated the kabalistic cosmography, first presented by the Book of Raziel, and which appears in later works influenced by the latter.
In its present form, the Baraita is composed of nine chapters, treating astronomy
Astronomy
Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth...
and astrology
Astrology
Astrology consists of a number of belief systems which hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events in the human world...
. The first chapter deals with the form of heaven, of Orion
Orion (constellation)
Orion, often referred to as The Hunter, is a prominent constellation located on the celestial equator and visible throughout the world. It is one of the most conspicuous, and most recognizable constellations in the night sky...
, of the Pleiades
Pleiades (star cluster)
In astronomy, the Pleiades, or Seven Sisters , is an open star cluster containing middle-aged hot B-type stars located in the constellation of Taurus. It is among the nearest star clusters to Earth and is the cluster most obvious to the naked eye in the night sky...
, of Draco
Draco (constellation)
Draco is a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name is Latin for dragon. Draco is circumpolar for many observers in the northern hemisphere...
, and of the planets and their light. The second and third treat of the movements of the moon
Moon
The Moon is Earth's only known natural satellite,There are a number of near-Earth asteroids including 3753 Cruithne that are co-orbital with Earth: their orbits bring them close to Earth for periods of time but then alter in the long term . These are quasi-satellites and not true moons. For more...
and the course of the Zodiac
Zodiac
In astronomy, the zodiac is a circle of twelve 30° divisions of celestial longitude which are centred upon the ecliptic: the apparent path of the Sun across the celestial sphere over the course of the year...
. At the same time directions are given for adjusting the gnomon of a sun-dial. The fourth defines the character of the seasons and the planets; the fifth, the orbits of the planets. Directions are given for calculating Molad
Molad
Molad is a Hebrew word meaning "birth" that also generically refers to the time at which the New Moon is "born". The word is ambiguous, however, because depending on the context it could refer to the actual or mean astronomical lunar conjunction , or the molad of the traditional Hebrew...
and Teḳufah
Tekufah
Tekufot are the four seasons of the year recognized by Talmud writers. The four tekufot are:#Tekufat Nisan, the vernal equinox , when the sun enters Aries; this is the beginning of spring, or "eit hazera" , when day and night are equal.#Tekufat Tammuz, the summer solstice , when the sun enters...
. The sixth imparts the teachings of the Egyptian
Egyptians
Egyptians are nation an ethnic group made up of Mediterranean North Africans, the indigenous people of Egypt.Egyptian identity is closely tied to geography. The population of Egypt is concentrated in the lower Nile Valley, the small strip of cultivable land stretching from the First Cataract to...
sages on the original position of the planets and the division of the Zodiac. The seventh chapter mentions the exact distances of the planets from the Earth
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets...
: the moon is considered the nearest; Saturn
Saturn
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest planet in the Solar System, after Jupiter. Saturn is named after the Roman god Saturn, equated to the Greek Cronus , the Babylonian Ninurta and the Hindu Shani. Saturn's astronomical symbol represents the Roman god's sickle.Saturn,...
, the most distant. The eighth chapter deals with the altitudes of the planets. The ninth chapter discusses the influence of the heavenly bodies on earthly affairs. It is conceded that "the planets in themselves can not make for good or evil, unless empowered by God."
The older scholars considered the author of the Baraita to be the amora
Amora
Amoraim , were renowned Jewish scholars who "said" or "told over" the teachings of the Oral law, from about 200 to 500 CE in Babylonia and the Land of Israel. Their legal discussions and debates were eventually codified in the Gemara...
Samuel bar Abba, who, according to the statements in the Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
, was a great astronomer (it is doubtful whether Kuzari
Kuzari
The Kitab al Khazari, commonly called the Kuzari, is one of most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi, completed around 1140. Its title is an Arabic phrase meaning Book of the Khazars...
, iv. 29, refers to an actual astronomical work of Samuel, or to his astronomical knowledge). The newer editions have Samuel ha-Ḳaṭan as the author. This is hardly based on a tradition, but rather is due to a combination of the name "Samuel" with Samuel ha-Ḳaṭan, who is mentioned as possessing knowledge of the Ibbur (Sanh. 11a). These suggestions of names have no material value. The very contents and language of the Baraita contradict the assumption that it is the work of amoraim or tannaim
Tannaim
The Tannaim were the Rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 70-200 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also referred to as the Mishnaic period, lasted about 130 years...
. Moreover, ch. v. designates the year 4536 (=776 C.E.) as the one which, with but a slight difference, resembles the year of the Creation. The courses of the sun and moon, leap-years, and Teḳufah will repeat themselves, and calculations must begin anew from this year.
The earliest date, then, at which the Baraita could have been written is 776. It is more difficult to determine the latest date. This question is connected with that of the relationship of the Baraita to the Pirḳe de-Rabbi Eliezer
Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer
Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer is an aggadic-midrashic work on Genesis, part of Exodus, and a few sentences of Numbers, ascribed to R. Eliezer ben Hyrcanus , a disciple of Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakai and teacher of Rabbi Akiva. It comprises fifty four chapters...
. Some have endeavored to conclude, from citations of the Baraita by Abraham ben Ḥiyyah and Judah ha-Levi, that the Baraita and the Pirḳe de-Rabbi Eliezer originally formed one work. The portions of the Baraita now existing prove clearly that the two are fundamentally different; neither diction, subject, character, nor aim of the two works bearing any resemblance. There is, however, distinct kinship between the two astronomic chapters of the Pirḳe de-Rabbi Eliezer (vi. and vii.) and the Baraita of Samuel; but it cannot be decided which author borrowed from the other. In fact, there may have been a third source from which both drew. Zunz
Zunz
Zunz, Zuntz is a Yiddish surname: , Belgian pharmacologist* Leopold Zunz , German Reform rabbi* Gerhard Jack Zunz , British civil engineer- Zuntz :* Nathan Zuntz , German physiologist...
supposes that the astronomic chapters in the Pirḳe originally had a slightly varying form from that of the Baraita, and that portions from each found their way into the other. This would explain how Abraham b. Ḥiyyah came to designate a Baraita as being the work of Samuel and R. Eliezer. It is certain, however, that all that is known at present (as of 1906) consists of fragments of the Samuel Baraita.
Steinschneider correctly characterizes the Baraita as somewhat fantastic in its conception of the construction of the world, containing Talmudic elements, but uninfluenced by Greco-Arabic science. Its unscientific, half-mystic tendency caused it to be thrust aside in the Orient through the rising Arabic science, while in Europe, especially in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, it was regarded with special respect. From constituents of the Baraita joined with various elements of mysticism originated the kabalistic cosmography, first presented by the Book of Raziel, and which appears in later works influenced by the latter.
Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography
- Editions: Salonica, 1861; Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1863;
- S.D. Luzzatto, in Kerem Ḥemed, vii. 61 et seq.;
- Eliakim CarmolyEliakim CarmolyEliakim Carmoly was a French-Jewish scholar. He was born at Soultz-Haut-Rhin, then in the French department of Haut-Rhin. His real name was Goschel David Behr ; the name Carmoly, borne by his family in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, was adopted by him when quite young...
, in Jost's Annalen, 1840, p. 225; - Epstein, in Mi-Ḳadmoniyot, pp. 18 et seq.;
- Philipowski, in his Introduction to Abraham b. Ḥiyyah's Sefer ha-'Ibbur, pp. 13-18;
- S. Sachs, in Monatsschrift, i. 280 et seq.;
- idem, in his Ha-Teḥiyah, i. 20 et seq.;
- A. Schwarz, Der Jüdische Kalender, pp. 20, 21;
- Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. xvii. 8 et seq.;
- ZunzZunzZunz, Zuntz is a Yiddish surname: , Belgian pharmacologist* Leopold Zunz , German Reform rabbi* Gerhard Jack Zunz , British civil engineer- Zuntz :* Nathan Zuntz , German physiologist...
, G. V. 2d ed., pp. 98 et seq.; - idem, in Hebr. Bibl. v. 15-20;
- idem, Gesammelte Schriften, iv. 242 et seq.
External links
- Jewish Encyclopedia article on Baraita of Samuel, by Marcus JastrowMarcus JastrowMarcus Jastrow was a renowned Talmudic scholar, most famously known for his authorship of the popular and comprehensive A Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Babli, Talmud Yerushalmi and Midrashic Literature....
and Louis GinzbergLouis GinzbergRabbi Louis Ginzberg was a Talmudist and leading figure in the Conservative Movement of Judaism of the twentieth century. He was born on November 28, 1873, in Kovno, Lithuania; he died on November 11, 1953, in New York City.-Biographical background:...