Visible Human Project
Encyclopedia
The Visible Human Project is an effort to create a detailed data set
of cross-sectional photographs of the human body, in order to facilitate anatomy
visualization applications. A male and a female cadaver
were cut into thin slices which were then photographed and digitized. The project is run by the U.S.
National Library of Medicine (NLM) under the direction of Michael J. Ackerman. Planning began in 1989; the data set of the male was completed in November 1994 and the one of the female in November 1995. The project can be viewed today at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington, DC. There are currently efforts to repeat this project with higher resolution images but only with parts of the body instead of a cadaver.
plane at 1 millimeter intervals. Each of the resulting 1,871 “slices” were photographed in both analog and digital, yielding 15 gigabyte
s of data. In 2000, the photos were rescanned at a higher resolution, yielding more than 65 gigabytes. The female cadaver was cut into slices at .33 millimeter intervals, resulting in some 40 gigabytes of data.
The term “cut” is a bit of a misnomer
, yet it is used to describe the process of grinding away the top surface of a specimen at regular intervals. The term “slice,” also a misnomer, refers to the revealed surface of the specimen to be photographed; the process of grinding the surface away is entirely destructive to the specimen and leaves no usable or preservable “slice” of the cadaver.
The data is supplemented by axial sections of the whole body obtained by computed tomography, axial sections of the head and neck obtained by magnetic resonance imaging
, and coronal sections of the rest of the body also obtained by magnetic resonance imaging.
The scanning, slicing and photographing took place at the University of Colorado's Health Sciences Center, where additional cutting of anatomical specimens continues to take place.
, a 38-year-old Texas murderer who was executed by lethal injection
on August 5, 1993. At the prompting of a prison chaplain he had agreed to donate his body for scientific research or medical use, without knowing about the Visible Human Project. Some people have voiced ethical concerns over this. One of the most notable statements came from the University of Vienna
which demanded that the images be withdrawn with reference to the point that the medical profession should have no association with executions, and that the donor's informed consent could be scrutinised.
The 59-year-old female donor remains anonymous. In the press she has been described as a Maryland housewife who died from a heart attack
and whose husband requested that she be part of the project.
of the man to be slightly swollen, and his inner ear ossicles
were lost during preparation of the slices. Nerve
s are hard to make out since they have almost the same color as fat
, but many have nevertheless been identified. Small blood vessel
s were collapsed by the freezing process. Tendons are difficult to cut cleanly, and they occasionally smear across the slice surfaces.
The male has only one testicle
, is missing his appendix
, and has tissue deterioration at the site of lethal injection. Also visible are tissue damage to the dorsum of each forearm by formalin injection and damage to the right sartorius
from opening the right femoral vein
for drainage. The male was also not "cut" while in anatomical position, so the cuts through his arms are oblique.
The reproductive organs of the woman are not representative of those of a young woman. The specimen contains several pathologies, including cardiovascular disease
and diverticulitis
.
in the pelvic region and the location of the urinary bladder
and prostate
.
from Touch of Life Technologies and “Voxel-Man
-Man 3D-Navigator” from the University of Hamburg NLM itself has started the open source
project “Insight Toolkit” whose aim is to automatically deduce organ boundaries from the data.
The data were used for Alexander Tsiaras's book and CD-ROM “Body Voyage” which features a three-dimensional tour through the body.
A "Virtual Radiography" application creates Digitally Reconstructed Radiographs and “virtual surgery”, where endoscopic procedures
or balloon angioplasty are simulated: the surgeon can view the progress of the instrument on a screen and receives realistic tactile feedback according to what kind of tissue the instrument would currently be touching.
Data set
A data set is a collection of data, usually presented in tabular form. Each column represents a particular variable. Each row corresponds to a given member of the data set in question. Its values for each of the variables, such as height and weight of an object or values of random numbers. Each...
of cross-sectional photographs of the human body, in order to facilitate anatomy
Anatomy
Anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy , and plant anatomy...
visualization applications. A male and a female cadaver
Cadaver
A cadaver is a dead human body.Cadaver may also refer to:* Cadaver tomb, tomb featuring an effigy in the form of a decomposing body* Cadaver , a video game* cadaver A command-line WebDAV client for Unix....
were cut into thin slices which were then photographed and digitized. The project is run by the U.S.
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
National Library of Medicine (NLM) under the direction of Michael J. Ackerman. Planning began in 1989; the data set of the male was completed in November 1994 and the one of the female in November 1995. The project can be viewed today at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington, DC. There are currently efforts to repeat this project with higher resolution images but only with parts of the body instead of a cadaver.
Data
The male cadaver was encased and frozen in a gelatin and water mixture in order to stabilize the specimen for cutting. The specimen was then “cut” in the axialAxial
Axial may mean:* Along the same line as an axis of rotation in geometry* A type of modal frame in music* One of several anatomical directions in an animal body* Axial age, the period from 800 to 200 BC in China, India and the western world...
plane at 1 millimeter intervals. Each of the resulting 1,871 “slices” were photographed in both analog and digital, yielding 15 gigabyte
Gigabyte
The gigabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information storage. The prefix giga means 109 in the International System of Units , therefore 1 gigabyte is...
s of data. In 2000, the photos were rescanned at a higher resolution, yielding more than 65 gigabytes. The female cadaver was cut into slices at .33 millimeter intervals, resulting in some 40 gigabytes of data.
The term “cut” is a bit of a misnomer
Misnomer
A misnomer is a term which suggests an interpretation that is known to be untrue. Such incorrect terms sometimes derive their names because of the form, action, or origin of the subject becoming named popularly or widely referenced—long before their true natures were known.- Sources of misnomers...
, yet it is used to describe the process of grinding away the top surface of a specimen at regular intervals. The term “slice,” also a misnomer, refers to the revealed surface of the specimen to be photographed; the process of grinding the surface away is entirely destructive to the specimen and leaves no usable or preservable “slice” of the cadaver.
The data is supplemented by axial sections of the whole body obtained by computed tomography, axial sections of the head and neck obtained by magnetic resonance imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging , nuclear magnetic resonance imaging , or magnetic resonance tomography is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to visualize detailed internal structures...
, and coronal sections of the rest of the body also obtained by magnetic resonance imaging.
The scanning, slicing and photographing took place at the University of Colorado's Health Sciences Center, where additional cutting of anatomical specimens continues to take place.
Donors
The male cadaver is from Joseph Paul JerniganJoseph Paul Jernigan
Joseph Paul Jernigan was a Texas murderer who was killed by lethal injection at 12:31 a.m.In 1981, Jernigan was sentenced to death for stabbing and shooting 75-year-old Edward Hale, who discovered him stealing a microwave oven. Jernigan spent 12 years in prison before his final plea for clemency...
, a 38-year-old Texas murderer who was executed by lethal injection
Lethal injection
Lethal injection is the practice of injecting a person with a fatal dose of drugs for the express purpose of causing the immediate death of the subject. The main application for this procedure is capital punishment, but the term may also be applied in a broad sense to euthanasia and suicide...
on August 5, 1993. At the prompting of a prison chaplain he had agreed to donate his body for scientific research or medical use, without knowing about the Visible Human Project. Some people have voiced ethical concerns over this. One of the most notable statements came from the University of Vienna
University of Vienna
The University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world...
which demanded that the images be withdrawn with reference to the point that the medical profession should have no association with executions, and that the donor's informed consent could be scrutinised.
The 59-year-old female donor remains anonymous. In the press she has been described as a Maryland housewife who died from a heart attack
Myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction or acute myocardial infarction , commonly known as a heart attack, results from the interruption of blood supply to a part of the heart, causing heart cells to die...
and whose husband requested that she be part of the project.
Problems with the data sets
Freezing caused the brainBrain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
of the man to be slightly swollen, and his inner ear ossicles
Ossicles
The ossicles are the three smallest bones in the human body. They are contained within the middle ear space and serve to transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth . The absence of the auditory ossicles would constitute a moderate-to-severe hearing loss...
were lost during preparation of the slices. Nerve
Nerve
A peripheral nerve, or simply nerve, is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of peripheral axons . A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses that are transmitted along each of the axons. Nerves are found only in the peripheral nervous system...
s are hard to make out since they have almost the same color as fat
Fat
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and generally insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are triglycerides, triesters of glycerol and any of several fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure...
, but many have nevertheless been identified. Small blood vessel
Blood vessel
The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transports blood throughout the body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and...
s were collapsed by the freezing process. Tendons are difficult to cut cleanly, and they occasionally smear across the slice surfaces.
The male has only one testicle
Testicle
The testicle is the male gonad in animals. Like the ovaries to which they are homologous, testes are components of both the reproductive system and the endocrine system...
, is missing his appendix
Vermiform appendix
The appendix is a blind-ended tube connected to the cecum , from which it develops embryologically. The cecum is a pouchlike structure of the colon...
, and has tissue deterioration at the site of lethal injection. Also visible are tissue damage to the dorsum of each forearm by formalin injection and damage to the right sartorius
Sartorius muscle
The Sartorius muscle – the longest muscle in the human body – is a long thin muscle that runs down the length of the thigh. Its upper portion forms the lateral border of the femoral triangle.-Origin and insertion:...
from opening the right femoral vein
Femoral vein
In the human body, the femoral vein is a blood vessel that accompanies the femoral artery in the femoral sheath. It begins at the adductor canal and is a continuation of the popliteal vein...
for drainage. The male was also not "cut" while in anatomical position, so the cuts through his arms are oblique.
The reproductive organs of the woman are not representative of those of a young woman. The specimen contains several pathologies, including cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease
Heart disease or cardiovascular disease are the class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels . While the term technically refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular system , it is usually used to refer to those related to atherosclerosis...
and diverticulitis
Diverticulitis
Diverticulitis is a common digestive disease particularly found in the large intestine. Diverticulitis develops from diverticulosis, which involves the formation of pouches on the outside of the colon...
.
Discoveries
By studying the data set, researchers at Columbia University found several errors in anatomy textbooks, related to the shape of a muscleMuscle
Muscle is a contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
in the pelvic region and the location of the urinary bladder
Urinary bladder
The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys before disposal by urination. A hollow muscular, and distensible organ, the bladder sits on the pelvic floor...
and prostate
Prostate
The prostate is a compound tubuloalveolar exocrine gland of the male reproductive system in most mammals....
.
License
The data may be bought on tape or downloaded free of charge; one has to specify the intended use and sign a license agreement that allows NLM to use and modify the resulting application. NLM can cancel the agreement at any time, at which point the user has to erase the data files.Applications using the data
Various projects to make the raw data more useful for educational purposes are under way. It is necessary to build a three-dimensional virtual model of the body where the organs are labeled, may be removed selectively and viewed from all sides, and ideally are even animated. Two commercial software products accomplish the majority of these goals, the VH DissectorVH Dissector
The VH Dissector is a software application for anatomy instruction and visualization created by Touch of Life Technologies. The VH Dissector is based on the Visible Human Project dataset, and contains the original cross section images as well as a 3D model built from the stacked cross sections...
from Touch of Life Technologies and “Voxel-Man
Voxel-Man
VOXEL-MAN is the name of a set of a computer programs for creation and visualization of three-dimensional digital models of the human body derived from cross-sectional images of Computer Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Tomography or photography . It was developed at the University Medical Center...
-Man 3D-Navigator” from the University of Hamburg NLM itself has started the open source
Open source
The term open source describes practices in production and development that promote access to the end product's source materials. Some consider open source a philosophy, others consider it a pragmatic methodology...
project “Insight Toolkit” whose aim is to automatically deduce organ boundaries from the data.
The data were used for Alexander Tsiaras's book and CD-ROM “Body Voyage” which features a three-dimensional tour through the body.
A "Virtual Radiography" application creates Digitally Reconstructed Radiographs and “virtual surgery”, where endoscopic procedures
Endoscopy
Endoscopy means looking inside and typically refers to looking inside the body for medical reasons using an endoscope , an instrument used to examine the interior of a hollow organ or cavity of the body. Unlike most other medical imaging devices, endoscopes are inserted directly into the organ...
or balloon angioplasty are simulated: the surgeon can view the progress of the instrument on a screen and receives realistic tactile feedback according to what kind of tissue the instrument would currently be touching.
See also
- 3D Indiana3D Indiana3D Indiana is a commercial Educational software for teaching and research on the human anatomy. The name is an acronym for Three-Dimensional Interactive Digital Anatomy. This softwareis basedon the principles ofvolumetric anatomy...
- Primal PicturesPrimal PicturesPrimal Pictures Ltd., established in 1991, is the producer of 3D Interactive Anatomy Software, which is used by medical educators, professionals, practitioners and students.- Company :...
- ImageVis3DImageVis3DImageVis3D is a lightweight, open source, volume rendering application for the interactive visualization of very large volumetric data sets. It utilizes both the slice based as well as the GPU ray casting approach to visualize the volume data...
- VH DissectorVH DissectorThe VH Dissector is a software application for anatomy instruction and visualization created by Touch of Life Technologies. The VH Dissector is based on the Visible Human Project dataset, and contains the original cross section images as well as a 3D model built from the stacked cross sections...
- Google body browser
External links
- Home page of the project, including links to the various other projects that use the data
- The Visible Human Male: A Technical Report, Detailed history of methods used to prepare the male cadaver and gather image data as published in the free article in the Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 1996
- Visible Human Viewer, Java applets to view this project in axial, sagittal and coronal slices
- Visible Human Server by the EPFL (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne). Extensive Java applets to view, extract and animate slices. Also applets for 3D feature extraction.
- Center for Human Simulation at UCHSC A collection of several applications using the Visible Human Datasets
- Touch of Life Technologies A commercial website which produces the VH Dissector, a virtual dissection program that uses the Visible Human datasets.