The
Transcendental Meditation technique, or
TM technique is a form of
mantraFor secular and business interpretation, see Motto.A mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that are considered capable of "creating transformation"...
meditationMeditation is used here as a broad term for practices done by a sole practitioner without much, if any, external aide, often for the purpose of self-transformation...
introduced in India in 1955 by
Maharishi Mahesh YogiMaharishi Mahesh Yogi introduced the Transcendental Meditation technique and related programs and initiatives, including schools and universities with campuses in several countries including India, the United States, Mexico, the United Kingdom and China.In approximately 1939, the Maharishi became...
(1917-2008). It is reported to be the most widely researched and one of the most widely practiced meditation techniques.
Taught in a standardized seven-step course by certified teachers, the technique involves the use of a sound or mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day, while sitting comfortably with closed eyes.
In 1957, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi began a series of world tours during which he introduced and taught his meditation technique. In 1959, he founded the International Meditation Society and, in 1961, he began to train teachers of the Transcendental Meditation technique. From the late 1960s through the mid 1970s, both the Maharishi and the TM technique received significant public attention in the USA, especially among the student population. During this period, a million people learned the technique, including well-known public figures.
Teaching procedure
The Transcendental Meditation technique is taught in a standardized, seven-step course that consists of two introductory lectures, a personal interview, and four, two-hour instruction sessions given on consecutive days. The initial personal instruction session begins with a short puja ceremony performed by the teacher, after which the student is taught the technique. The student then practices the technique twice a day. Subsequent sessions with the teacher ensure correct practice. The technique is practiced morning and evening for 15–20 minutes each time, but is not recommended before bed. According to author Peter Russel and the official TM web site, the Transcendental Meditation technique can be learned only from a certified, authorized teacher. The terms "Transcendental Meditation" and "TM" are servicemarks owned by Maharishi Foundation Ltd., a UK non-profit organization. These
trademarkA trademark or trade mark is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, business organization, or other legal entity to identify that the products or services to consumers with which the trademark appears originate from a unique source, and to distinguish its products or services from...
s have been sub-licensed to the
Maharishi Vedic Education Development CorporationMaharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation is an American non-profit organization, incorporated in the state of Massachusetts in 1993....
(MVED), an American non-profit organization which offers the Transcendental Meditation technique and related courses in the U.S.A.
Principles of the technique
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says in his 1963 book,
The Science Of Being and Art Of Living, that, over time, the practice of allowing the mind to experience its deeper levels during the Transcendental Meditation technique brings these levels from the subconscious to within the capacity of the conscious mind. According to Maharishi, as the mind quiets down and experiences finer thoughts, the Transcendental Meditation practitioner can become aware that thought itself is transcended and can have the experience of what he calls the 'source of thought', 'pure awareness' or 'transcendental Being'; 'the ultimate reality of life'.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi describes the Transcendental Meditation technique as one which requires no preparation, is simple to do, and can be learned by anyone. In a
BBCThe British Broadcasting Corporation, usually referred to by its abbreviation as the "BBC", is the longest established and largest broadcaster in the world...
interview in 1964, he says, "As the mind goes nearer to the field of Being, it experiences increased charm, and this increasing charm at every step towards the subtlety of thought draws the mind on automatically".
Characterizations
The technique is described as being effortless and natural, and involving neither
contemplationThe word Contemplation comes from the Latin root templum , and means to separate something from its environment, and to enclose it in a sector. Contemplation is the Latin translation of Greek 'theory'...
nor concentration. Instead, it relies only on the natural tendency of the mind to move in the direction of greater satisfaction.
In his book
The T.M. Technique, Peter Russell says the Transcendental Meditation technique allows the mind to become still without effort, in contrast to meditation practices that attempt to control the mind by holding it on a single thought or by keeping it empty of all thoughts. He says trying to control the mind is like trying to go to sleep at night — if a person makes an effort to fall asleep, his or her mind remains active and restless. This is why, he says, the Transcendental Meditation technique avoids concentration and effort.
According to Wayne Teasdale's book
The Mystic Heart: Discovering a Universal Spirituality in the World’s Religions, the Transcendental Meditation technique is what is called an open or receptive method that can be described as giving up control and remaining open in an inner sense.
Use of a mantra
During the initial personal instruction session, the student is given a specific sound or
mantraFor secular and business interpretation, see Motto.A mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that are considered capable of "creating transformation"...
. The sound is utilized as a thought in the meditation process, allowing the individual’s attention to be directed naturally from an active style of functioning to a less active or quieter style of mental activity.
An important distinction between the Transcendental Meditation technique and other practices that involve mantras is in the way the mantra, or sound, is used. In Transcendental Meditation the mantra is not chanted—either verbally or mentally, but is instead a vehicle on which the attention rests.
Selection
According to Russell, the sounds used in the Transcendental Meditation technique are taken from the ancient
VedicVedic may refer to:* the Vedas, the oldest preserved Indic texts** Vedic Sanskrit, the language of these texts** Vedic period, during which these texts were produced** Vedic pantheon of gods mentioned in Vedas/vedic period...
tradition. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi explains that the selection of a proper thought or mantra "becomes increasingly important when we consider that the power of thought increases when the thought is appreciated in its infant stages of development". William Jefferson in
The Story of the Maharishi, explains the importance of the "euphonics" of mantras. Jefferson says that the secrets of the mantras and their subsequent standardization for today's teachers of the technique were unraveled by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi after his years of study with his own teacher, Guru Dev (
Brahmananda SaraswatiBrahmananda Saraswati was the Shankaracharya of Jyotir Math, a revered spiritual title in India, from 1941 to 1953.-Early life:...
) so that selection is foolproof, and that the number of mantras from the Vedic tradition, which could number in the hundreds, have been brought by Maharishi to a minimum number.
Author George Chryssides says that, according to Maharishi, there are different mantras for "
householderA householder is a person who is the head of a household; see House.Householder is also a family name:*Alston Scott Householder, American mathematician
Mathematical topics named after A.S...
s" and for
recluseA recluse is someone in isolation who hides away from the attention of the public, a person who lives in solitude, i.e. seclusion from intercourse with the world...
s. The Transcendental Meditation mantra is an appropriate mantra for householders, while most mantras commonly found in books are mantras for recluses. Chryssides says that TM teachers claim that the results promised by the Transcendental Meditation technique will not occur unless a trained Transcendental Meditation teacher chooses the mantra for the student.
In 1975, Time Magazine reported that each TM meditator is instructed to keep their mantra private. Each TM teacher assigns each student's mantra based on a formula that is presumed to include temperament and profession. The article says that there are 17 mantras. In 1997, Bainbridge wrote that the mantras given for Transcendental Meditation are "supposedly selected to match the nervous system of the individual but actually taken from a list of 16
SanskritSanskrit is a historical Indo-Aryan language, one of the liturgical languages of Hinduism and Buddhism, and one of the 22 official languages of India. It is also declared as a classical language by the government of India....
words on the basis of the person's age".
In January 1984,
Omni (magazine)OMNI was a science magazine and science fiction magazine published in the USA. It contained articles on science fact and short works of science fiction. The first issue was published in October 1978, the last in Winter 1995, with an internet version lasting until 1998...
published a list of mantras, received from "disaffected TM teachers".
Descriptions
The 1995 expanded addition of Conway and Siegelman's
Snapping Point describes a teacher of Transcendental Meditation who says: "I was lying about the mantras — they were not meaningless sounds they were actually the names of
HinduA Hindu is an adherent of Hinduism, a set of religious, philosophical and cultural systems that originated in the Indian subcontinent. The vast body of Hindu scriptures, divided into Śruti and Smriti , lay the foundation of Hindu beliefs which primarily include dhárma, kárma, ahimsa and saṃsāra...
demigods - and about how many different ones there were — we had sixteen to give out to our students". In the 1977 court case Malnak vs. Yogi (see below), an undisputed fact in the case was that the mantras are meaningless sounds.
In a speech the Maharishi gave in Kerala, India, in 1955, he mentions a connection between the mantras and personal deities and occasionally similar references can also be found in his later works. More commonly, the Maharishi describes the mantras as working automatically.
Jonathan Shear in his book
The Experience of Meditation: Experts Introduce the Major Traditions, characterizes the mantras used in the TM technique as independent of meaning associated with any
languageA language is a system for encoding and decoding information. In its most common use, the term refers to so-called "natural languages" — the forms of communication considered peculiar to humankind. In linguistics the term is extended to refer to the human cognitive facility of creating and using...
, and are used for their mental, sound value alone. A 2009 article published in the
International Journal of Psychophysiolgy says that "unlike most mantra meditations, any possible meaning of the mantra is not part of Transcendental Meditation practice".
In his book
Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction, author Stephen Hunt says that the mantra used in the Transcendental Meditation technique has no meaning but that the sound itself is sacred.
1950s
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi served as a "close disciple" and secretary to
SwamiSwami is primarily a Hindu honorific title, for either males or females. It is derived from Sanskrit and means "He who knows and is master of himself", "owner of oneself", or "free from the senses"...
Brahmananda SaraswatiBrahmananda Saraswati was the Shankaracharya of Jyotir Math, a revered spiritual title in India, from 1941 to 1953.-Early life:...
(Guru Dev) from 1941 until Brahmananda Saraswati's death in 1953. Guru Dev had revived a lost meditation technique that originated in the Vedas.
In 1955, the Maharishi, an Indian ascetic, began teaching a meditation technique that he said was derived from the
VedicVedic Sanskrit is an Old Indic language. It is the language of the Vedas, the oldest shruti texts of Hinduism, compiled over the period of the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC. It is an archaic form of Sanskrit, an early descendant of Proto-Indo-Iranian. It is closely related to Avestan, the...
tradition and which later came to be called Transcendental Meditation. The Maharishi was a featured speaker at the "Spiritual Development Conference" in Cochin, India in October 1955. His lectures were transcribed and appeared in the out of print, souvenir publication "Beacon Light of the Himalayas".
In 1957, Maharishi began the Spiritual Regeneration Movement in Madras, India on the concluding day of a festival held in remembrance of his deceased teacher.
In 1958, he began the first of a number of worldwide tours promoting and disseminating the TM technique. This tour began in Rangoon, Burma (now
MyanmarBurma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia or Indochina. The country is bordered by China on the northeast, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, India on the northwest and the Bay of Bengal to the...
). The Maharishi remained in the Far East for about six months teaching Transcendental Meditation.
In 1959, the Maharishi taught the Transcendental Meditation technique in
HawaiiHawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states, and is the only state made up entirely of islands. It is located on an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of Australia. The state was admitted to the Union on August...
. Later that year, Maharishi went to
CaliforniaCalifornia is the most populous state in the United States, and the third largest by area. California is the second most populous sub-national entity in the Americas, behind only São Paulo, Brazil...
and became a guest at the home of Roland and Helena Olson and their daughter Theresa, who later wrote about their experiences in books. He continued to visit and teach Transcendental Meditation from the Olsons' home over the next few years.
During this period, the Transcendental Meditation technique was taught under the auspices of several organizations. The Spiritual Regeneration Movement Foundation (SRMF) was incorporated in California in July, 1959. Its articles of incorporation stated that the SRMF's primary purpose for formation was spiritual, and in Article 11 that "this corporation is a religious one. The educational purpose shall be to give instruction in a simple system of meditation." The SRMF corporation was later dissolved.
1960s and 1970s
In 1960, the Maharishi founded the International Meditation Society (IMS) and trained his first Transcendental Meditation teacher, Henry Nyburg of
EnglandEngland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
.
In 1961, the first international Teacher Training Course was held near Rishikesh, India to train teachers of Transcendental Meditation. Over 60 meditators from
IndiaIndia, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal...
,
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
,
DenmarkDenmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe and the senior member of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries; southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and it is bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark borders both the Baltic and the North Sea...
,
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
,
BritainThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
,
Malaya-Geographic/former political entities:* The Malay Peninsula* Malay Archipelago, the broader macroregion.-Malaya including Singapore:* British Malaya , a loose collection of British controlled states...
,
NorwayNorway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a country in Northern Europe occupying the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, as well as Jan Mayen and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard under the Spitsbergen Treaty...
, the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
,
AustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the continental mainland , the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans...
,
GreeceGreece , officially the Hellenic Republic , is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula....
,
ItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic , is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia...
and the West Indies attended. Teachers continued to be trained as time progressed. The Maharishi appeared on
BBCThe British Broadcasting Corporation, usually referred to by its abbreviation as the "BBC", is the longest established and largest broadcaster in the world...
television and gave a lecture to 5,000 people at the
Royal Albert HallThe Royal Albert Hall is an arts venue situated in the Knightsbridge area of the City of Westminster, London, England, best known for holding the annual summer Proms concerts since 1941....
in London.
In 1963, twenty one members of the Indian Parliament issued a public statement endorsing the Transcendental Meditation technique, and news articles appeared in Canadian newspapers such as the Daily Colonist,
Calgary HeraldThe Calgary Herald is a daily newspaper published in the Canadian city of Calgary, Alberta.- History :The paper was first published on August 31 1883 by Andrew Armour and Thomas Braden as The Calgary Herald, Mining and Ranche Advocate and General Advertiser. It started as a weekly paper with only...
and The Albertan.
In 1965, the Students International Meditation Society (SIMS) was incorporated and continues to function in some countries including the U.S.A. Another organization created to teach the Transcendental Meditation technique was the American Foundation for the Science of Creative Intelligence (AFSCI), which catered to businessmen. TM courses at
AT&TAT&T Inc. is the largest provider of local, long distance telephone services in the United States, and also serves digital subscriber line Internet access. AT&T is the second largest provider of wireless service in the United States, with over 77 million wireless customers, and more than 150...
,
General FoodsGeneral Foods Corporation was a company whose direct predecessor was established in the USA by Charles William Post as the Postum Cereal Company in 1895. The name General Foods was adopted in 1929, after several corporate acquisitions...
, Connecticut General Life Insurance Co., Blue Cross/Blue Shield in
ChicagoChicago is the largest city in the U.S. state of Illinois, and with more than 2.8 million people, the 3rd largest city in the United States...
, and the
Crocker National BankCrocker National Bank was a United States bank headquartered in San Francisco, California. It was acquired by and merged into Wells Fargo Bank in 1986.-History:The bank traces its history to the Woolworth National Bank in San Francisco...
of San Francisco were sponsored by AFSCI.
Beginning in 1968, a number of authors and entertainers such as
DonovanDonovan , is a Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist. Emerging from the British folk scene, he developed an eclectic and distinctive style that blended folk, jazz, pop, psychedelia, and world music...
,
The BeatlesThe Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960 who became one of the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed bands in the history of popular music...
and members of
The Beach BoysThe Beach Boys are an American rock band. Formed in 1961, the group gained popularity for its close vocal harmonies and lyrics reflecting a Southern California youth culture of cars, surfing, and romance...
, as well as
Doug HenningDouglas James Henning was a Canadian magician, illusionist, escape artist and politician. - Early life:...
,
Clint EastwoodClinton "Clint" Eastwood, Jr. is an American actor, film director, film producer and composer. He has received five Academy Awards, five Golden Globe Awards, a Screen Actors Guild Award and five People's Choice Awards—including one for Favorite All-Time Motion Picture Star.Eastwood is...
,
Deepak ChopraDeepak Chopra is an endocrinologist, lecturer, celebrity and author of books on spirituality and mind-body medicine. Chopra began his career as a medical doctor and later worked in mind-body medicine and ayurveda.-Family life:...
,
Andy KaufmanAndrew Geoffrey Kaufman was an American entertainer, actor and performance artist. While often referred to as a comedian, Kaufman did not consider himself one...
,
Jane FondaJane Fonda is an American actress, writer, political activist, former fashion model and fitness guru. She rose to fame in the 1960s with films such as Barbarella and Cat Ballou and, excluding a 15 year hiatus, has appeared in films ever since. She has won two Academy Awards and received several...
,
Mia FarrowMia Farrow is an American actress, singer, and former fashion model. Farrow has appeared in more than forty films and won numerous awards, including a Golden Globe award , three BAFTA Film Award nominations, and a win for best actress at the San Sebastian International Film Festival...
,
Shirley MacLaineShirley MacLaine is an American film and theater actress, dancer, activist, and author, well-known for her beliefs in new age spirituality and reincarnation. She has written a large number of autobiographical works, many dealing with her spiritual beliefs as well as her Hollywood career...
and
Kurt VonnegutKurt Vonnegut, Jr. was an American novelist known for works blending satire, black comedy, and science fiction including Slaughterhouse-Five , Cat's Cradle , and Breakfast of Champions...
reported using the technique. In 1975, TM meditator
Merv GriffinMervyn Edward "Merv" Griffin, Jr. was an American television host, singer, and media mogul. He began his career as a radio and big band singer who went on to appear in movies and on Broadway...
invited the Maharishi to appear on his talk show, thereby aiding Transcendental Meditation in becoming a “full blown craze” during that era (according to Time Magazine) and eventually becoming a global phenomenon with centers in some 130 countries.
In 1970, the first scientific study on the Transcendental Meditation technique was published in
Science magazine and the first course on the Science of Creative Intelligence was held at
Stanford UniversityThe Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university located in Stanford, California, United States...
in
CaliforniaCalifornia is the most populous state in the United States, and the third largest by area. California is the second most populous sub-national entity in the Americas, behind only São Paulo, Brazil...
.
In 1971, Maharishi International University was established in
Santa BarbaraSanta Bárbara or Santa Barbara, meaning "Saint Barbara" in several Romance languages, may refer to any of the following:-Places:Brazil*Santa Bárbara, Minas Gerais*Santa Bárbara d'OesteCape Verde*Santa Bárbara, Cape VerdeChile...
, California where all the students, faculty and staff practiced the TM technique.
In 1972 in
MallorcaMajorca is the largest island of Spain . It is located in the Mediterranean Sea and part of the Balearic Islands archipelago. The name derives from Latin insula maior, "larger island"; later Maiorica....
,
SpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.
[The Spanish constitution does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though España , Estado español and Nación española are used interchangeably...]
, the Maharishi announced his World Plan to establish one Transcendental Meditation teaching center for each million of the world's population.
In 1975, the Maharishi began teaching advanced mental techniques, called the
TM-Sidhi ProgramThe TM-Sidhi program is a meditation technique that was introduced by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in 1975, following the earlier introduction of the Transcendental Meditation technique...
, that included a technique for the development of what he termed Yogic Flying. In that same year, Transcendental Meditation received favorable testimony in the Congressional Record and was advocated by Major General Franklin Davis of the US Army.
A
Gallup PollThe Gallup Poll is the division of Gallup that regularly conducts public opinion polls in more than 140 countries around the world. Gallup Polls are often referenced in the mass media as a reliable and objective measure of public opinion...
conducted in August 1976 said that four percent (4%) of those Americans questioned had engaged in TM. The average number of people learning TM fell from a peak of approx. 40,000 a month in 1975 to approx. 3,000 in November 1977. Bainbridge wrote that in 1977, "Most of the million who had been initiated either ceased meditating or did so informally and irregularly without continuing connections to the TM Movement." The official TM web site reports that more than 6 million people worldwide have learned the Transcendental Meditation technique since its introduction in 1958.
Transcendental Meditation is often mistaken for other nostrums of the '60s and '70s, but it has little or no relationship to them.
1980s to the present
In 1980, the Maharishi's Programme to Create World Peace was begun and, in 1985, his World Plan for Perfect Health.
In 1990, a delegation of Transcendental Meditation teachers from Maharishi International University traveled to the former
Soviet UnionThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
to provide instruction in Transcendental Meditation. The trip, initially scheduled to last ten days, was extended to six months and resulted in the training of 35,000 people in the technique.
In that same year, the Maharishi began the coordination of the teaching of the Transcendental Meditation technique from the town of
VlodropVlodrop is a town in the south-eastern part of the Netherlands in the municipality of Roerdalen. The town is situated near the German border, about 8 km southeast of Roermond....
, the Netherlands through an organization he called the
Global Country of World PeaceGlobal Country of World Peace is a non-profit, charitable, organization which incorporated in the state of Iowa on October 15 2002 with Dr. Bevan Morris as its president. According to its Articles of Incorporation, it is a corporation organized and operated exclusively for charitable, educational...
(GCWP).
In 1993, the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation (MVED), a non-profit corporation, was formed to teach the Transcendental Meditation technique and related courses. The terms "Transcendental Meditation" and "TM" are servicemarks owned by Maharishi Foundation Ltd., a UK non-profit organization and licensed to the MVED.
In 2004, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi directed Transcendental Meditation practitioners at the Maharishi village at
SkelmersdaleSkelmersdale is a town in West Lancashire, England. It lies on high-ground on the River Tawd, to the northeast of Liverpool, south-southwest of Preston and west-northwest of Manchester. As of 2006, Skelmersdale had a population of 38,813, down from 41,000 in 2004...
,
LancashireLancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England. It takes its name from the city of Lancaster, and is sometimes known as the County of Lancaster. Lancashire County Council is based in Preston. However, Lancaster is still considered to be the county town...
to beam peace loving thoughts to the British electorate with the aim of overturning the Labour government. The Maharishi said: "The good effects of transcendental meditation — increased creativity and long life — should not be given to a dangerous country that is constantly busy destroying the world". After
Tony BlairAnthony Charles Lynton "Tony" Blair is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2 May 1997 to 27 June 2007. He was the Member of Parliament for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007...
's
Labour PartyThe Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. Founded at the start of the 20th century, it has been seen since 1920 as the principal party of the Left in England, Scotland and Wales, but not Northern Ireland, where it has only recently begun to organise again...
won reelection in May 2005, the Maharishi withdrew all instruction in Transcendental Meditation in the UK. The ban was lifted about the same time
Tony BlairAnthony Charles Lynton "Tony" Blair is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2 May 1997 to 27 June 2007. He was the Member of Parliament for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007...
left office as
Prime MinisterA prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The position is usually held by, but need not always be held by, a politician. In many systems, the prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and...
.
In 2006, the Transcendental Meditation technique was reported to be one of sixty services and courses offered by MVED and the Transcendental Meditation movement.
Range of studies
Studies have suggested either a cause-effect relationship or a positive correlation between practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique and changes in health-related physiological states, including improvement in lung function for patients with
asthmaAsthma is a predisposition to chronic inflammation of the lungs in which the airways are reversibly narrowed. Asthma affects 7% of the population of the United States, and 300 million worldwide...
, reduction of
high blood pressureHypertension is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure is elevated. It is also referred to as high blood pressure or shortened to HT, HTN or HPN. The word "hypertension", by itself, normally refers to systemic, arterial hypertension.Hypertension can be classified as either...
, an effect the researchers termed
"younger biological age"Reliability theory of aging and longevity is a scientific approach aimed to gain theoretical insights into mechanisms of biological aging and species survival patterns by applying a general theory of systems failure, known as reliability theory.-Overview:...
, decreased
insomniaInsomnia is a symptom of any of several sleep disorders, characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep despite the opportunity. Insomnia is a symptom, not a stand-alone diagnosis or a disease. By definition, insomnia is "difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, or both"...
, reduction of
high cholesterolHypercholesterolemia is the presence of high levels of cholesterol in the blood. It is not a disease but a metabolic derangement that can be secondary to many diseases and can contribute to many forms of disease, most notably cardiovascular disease...
, reduced illness and medical expenditures, decreased outpatient visits, decreased cigarette smoking, decreased alcohol use, and decreased
anxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, fear, or worry....
.
According to
Time MagazineTime is an American newsmagazine. A European edition is published from London. Time Europe covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong. As of 2009, Time no longer publishes a Canadian advertiser edition...
, researchers from
Harvard UniversityHarvard University is a private university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts and a member of the Ivy League. Founded in 1636 by the colonial Massachusetts legislature, Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and currently comprises ten separate academic units...
and UCLA found a significant drop in
systolicSystole , is a phase of the cardiac cycle where the myocardium is contracting in a coordinated manner in response to an endogenous electrical stimulus, and pressure is being generated within the chambers of the heart driving blood flow....
and diastolic
blood pressureBlood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, and is one of the principal vital signs. During each heartbeat, BP varies between a maximum and a minimum pressure...
after hypertensive patients began the practice of Transcendental Meditation. They report further findings by a neurologist at
Massachusetts General HospitalMassachusetts General Hospital is a teaching hospital of Harvard Medical School and a biomedical research facility in Boston, Massachusetts....
that oxygen consumption is as much as 18% lower during the practice of this meditation technique, compared to eyes closed rest, while
alpha wavesAlpha Waves is an early 3D game that combines labyrinthine exploration with platform gameplay. By most definitions of the genre it could be considered to be the first 3D platform game, released in 1990, 6 years before the genre's seminal classic Super Mario 64...
(electrical activity produced in the brain and generally associated with a feeling of relaxation) become denser and more widespread; also mentioned were reports by psychiatrists at the
Hartford Institute of LivingThe Institute of Living is a mental health center in Hartford, Connecticut affiliated with Hartford Hospital. The hospital was built in 1823, and was opened to admissions in 1824. Eli Todd was its first director. The hospital cost $12,000 to build and could serve up to 40 patients at a time...
that practitioners of the technique became less dependent on cigarettes, liquor, and drugs.
Effect on physiology
Research studies have described specific physiological effects that occur during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. The first studies, published in the early 1970s by lead author R.K. Wallace, found that the Transcendental Meditation technique produced a physiological state that the researchers called a "wakeful hypometabolic state", during which they found significant reductions in
respirationBreathing is the process that takes oxygen in and carbon dioxide out of the body. Aerobic organisms require oxygen to release energy via respiration, in the form of the metabolism of energy-rich molecules such as glucose...
, minute ventilation,
tidal volumeTidal volume is the lung volume representing the normal volume of air displaced between normal inhalation and exhalation when extra effort is not applied....
, and blood
lactateLactic acid , also known as milk acid, is a chemical compound that plays a role in several biochemical processes. It was first isolated in 1780 by a Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and is a carboxylic acid with a chemical formula of C
3H
6O
3...
, accompanied by significant increases in basal
skin resistanceGalvanic skin response , also known as electrodermal response , psychogalvanic reflex , or skin conductance response , is a method of measuring the electrical resistance of the skin...
, while
EEGEEG commonly refers to electroencephalography, a measurement of the electrical activity of the brain.EEG may also refer to:* Emperor Entertainment Group, a Hong Kong-based entertainment company...
measurements showed increased
coherenceIn physics, coherence is a property of waves, that enables stationary interference. More generally, coherence describes all properties of the electronic correlation between physical quantities of a wave....
and integration of brain functioning. Subsequent studies using control groups found similarities and differences when compared to relaxation. In 1987, researchers at
Maharishi University of ManagementMaharishi University of Management , formerly known as Maharishi International University, was founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who introduced the Transcendental Meditation technique....
, M.C. Dillbeck and D.W. Orme-Johnson, concluded that physiological measures reflected alertness rather than a sleep state during practice of the technique.
In her book "Stress Management", author Cotton says: "Interestingly, in spite of TM’s status outside the mainstream of the health system and mental health practice, it has been subject to a significant amount of empirical evaluation, much of which has in fact supported its claims of effectiveness in countering the physiological effects of stress." Psychiatrist Stanley Dean says, "TM is an important addition to our medical armamentarium, but it is not exclusive." According to Benson, Transcendental Meditation is "a hypometabolic state (...) that may well be induced by other techniques (...) and various religious prayers. TM therefore, is one method for eliciting the relaxation response".
Physiological effects compared to relaxation
The effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique have been compared to those of relaxation in biochemical studies,
clinical researchClinical research is a branch of medical science that determines the safety and effectiveness of medications, devices, diagnostic products, and treatment regimens intended for human use...
, and EEG studies. While there are similarities, a number of studies have demonstrated both
quantitativeA quantitative attribute is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured. Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number. Examples of physical quantities are distance, mass, and time...
and
qualitativeThe term qualitative is used to describe certain types of information. Qualitative data are described in terms of quality...
differences.
A 1984 article in the New York Times reported: "In a position not supported by most scientists outside the T.M. movement, researchers at the Maharishi International University in Fairfield, Iowa, maintain that T.M. has subtle effects on body chemistry and blood flow different from those induced by other formal relaxation methods, let alone ordinary rest." It also said that fifteen years of research on multiple kinds of meditation techniques has left the question of meditation's physiological effects more confused than clarified.
A 1976 study by Ruth Michaels at the
University of MichiganThe University of Michigan, Ann Arbor is a public research university located in the state of Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university, the flagship campus of the University of Michigan, and one of the top public universities in the world...
looked at the reduction of biochemicals associated with
stress- Mechanical :* Stress , the average amount of force exerted per unit area* Yield stress, the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically* Compressive stress, the stress applied to materials resulting in their compaction- Biological :...
as a result of meditation, finding similarities between the Transcendental Meditation technique and simple resting. Reduction of levels of
plasmaBlood plasma is the yellow liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells in whole blood would normally be suspended. It makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. It is mostly water and contains dissolved proteins, glucose, clotting factors, mineral ions, hormones and carbon dioxide...
epinephrineEpinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter that participates in the "fight or flight" response of the sympathetic nervous system...
, norephinephrine, and
lactateLactic acid , also known as milk acid, is a chemical compound that plays a role in several biochemical processes. It was first isolated in 1780 by a Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and is a carboxylic acid with a chemical formula of C
3H
6O
3...
were the same for groups. A second study by Michaels in 1979 found similarities between the two groups on four measures but said that lower levels of
cortisolCortisol is a corticosteroid hormone or glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, that is part of the adrenal gland . It is usually referred to as the "stress hormone" as it is involved in response to stress and anxiety, controlled by CRH...
in the meditators may suggest that they are less responsive to acute stress because of their lower levels of cortisol relative to resting
controlsWhen an experiment is being conducted to investigate the effect of a single variable of interest on a particular system, a scientific control is used to minimize unintended influences on that system. Such unintended influences include researcher bias, environmental changes, and biological variation...
.
A series of studies done in the lab of Archie Wilson at the University of California at Irvine over a period of nearly 20 years found biochemical differences between the Transcendental Meditation technique and relaxation. A 1978 study found declines of hepatic blood flow, increased
cardiac outputCardiac output is the volume of blood being pumped by the heart, in particular by a ventricle in a minute. This is measured in dm3 min-1...
, decreased arterial lactic acid, and minute volume in the Transcendental Meditation group. These changes imply a considerable increase of non-renal, non-hepatic blood flow of 44% during the Transcendental Meditation technique compared to a 12% increase during rest-relaxation. A study in 1983 found a marked decline of
red blood cellRed blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate body's principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues via the blood. They take up oxygen in the lungs or gills and release it while squeezing through the body's capillaries. The cells are filled with hemoglobin, a...
glycolytic rate induced by the Transcendental Meditation technique that was significantly correlated with decreased plasma lactate, a
metaboliteMetabolites are the intermediates and products of metabolism. The term metabolite is usually restricted to small molecules. A primary metabolite is directly involved in normal growth, development, and reproduction. A secondary metabolite is not directly involved in those processes, but usually has...
associated with stress.
A 1987 study found that during the hypometabolic states experienced by both the Transcendental Meditation and relaxation groups, arterial-venous
CO2 contentCO2 content is a blood test that usually appears on a "Chem 19" or an electrolyte panel. The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood...
difference declines, and that during the Transcendental Meditation technique, arterial-venous CO2 content difference briefly disappears. This change was due to both an increase of arterial CO2 content and a decrease of venous CO2 content. Similar, but opposite and smaller, changes occurred in arterial and venous 02 content. Both groups showed a decline in
respiratory quotientThe respiratory quotient , is a unitless number used in calculations of basal metabolic rate when estimated from carbon dioxide production. Such measurements, like measurements of oxygen uptake, are forms of indirect calorimetry...
with the TM group showing a significantly greater decrease. A 1996 study found that the Transcendental Meditation group showed a significant increase in
cerebral blood flowCerebral blood flow, or CBF, is the blood supply to the brain in a given time. In an adult, CBF is typically 750 millitres per minute or 15% of the cardiac output. This equates to 50 to 54 millilitres of blood per 100 grams of brain tissue per minute. CBF is tightly regulated to meet the brain's...
in the
frontalThe frontal lobe is an area in the brain of mammals. It is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to the parietal lobes and above and anterior to the temporal lobes...
and
occipitalThe occipital lobe is the visual processing center of the mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex. The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17, commonly called V1...
regions of the brain compared to a resting control group. The study also found a high correlation between increased cerebral blood flow and decreased
cerebrovascularCerebral circulation refers to the movement of blood through the network of blood vessels supplying the brain. The arteries deliver oxygenated blood, glucose and other nutrients to the brain and the veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart, removing carbon dioxide, lactic acid, and other...
resistance, suggesting that a contributing
vascularThe blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart, the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and...
mechanism to the increased cerebral blood flow may be decreased cerebrovascular resistance.
Other studies comparing the Transcendental Meditation technique with a relaxation control group have found that the Transcendental Meditation group shows a sharp decline in
thyroid stimulating hormoneThyroid-stimulating hormone is a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland....
(an increase of which is associated with stressors), a marked decline in red blood cell metabolism, increased
phenylalaninePhenylalanine is an α-amino acid with the formula HO
2CCHCH
2C
6H
5. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar because of the hydrophobic nature of the benzyl side chain. The codons for
L-phenylalanine are UUU and UUC...
concentration, and increased
arginine vasopressinArginine vasopressin , also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone , is a hormone found in most mammals, including humans. Vasopressin is a peptide hormone. It is derived from a preprohormone precursor that is synthesized in the hypothalamus and stored in vesicles at the...
secretion (a
hormoneA hormone is a chemical released by one or more cells that affects cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organisms...
associated with augmented learning and memory formation).
Medical research
In a 1975 study published in the journal
Respiration, twenty one patients with bronchial asthma (who were excluded for significant
emphysemaEmphysema is a lung disease, characterized by an abnormal, permanent enlargement of air spaces distal to the terminal bronchioles. The disease is coupled with the destruction of walls, but without obvious fibrosis...
by single breath
diffusing capacity for carbon monoxideDLCO stands for the diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide, the test used to determine this parameter. DLCO is the extent to which oxygen passes from the air sacs of the lungs into the blood...
) were studied in a six month
RCTA randomized controlled trial is a type of scientific experiment most commonly used in testing the efficacy or effectiveness of healthcare services or health technologies . RCTs are also employed in other research areas, such as judicial, educational, and social research...
designed study, (with the researchers but not the patients blind to the treatment modality) using the Transcendental Meditation technique and employing a crossover trial format using reading as a crossover
controlWhen an experiment is being conducted to investigate the effect of a single variable of interest on a particular system, a scientific control is used to minimize unintended influences on that system. Such unintended influences include researcher bias, environmental changes, and biological variation...
. The researchers concluded that based on the marked reduction in
asthmaAsthma is a predisposition to chronic inflammation of the lungs in which the airways are reversibly narrowed. Asthma affects 7% of the population of the United States, and 300 million worldwide...
symptom-severity duration, a statistically significant improvement of pulmonary function test abnormalities (in raw measured values of cm/H
2O/liter/sec determined using
spirometrySpirometry is the most common of the Pulmonary Function Tests , measuring lung function, specifically the measurement of the amount and/or speed of air that can be inhaled and exhaled...
and
body plethysmographyBody plethysmography is a very sensitive lung measurement used to detect lung pathology that might be missed with conventional pulmonary function tests. This method of obtaining the absolute volume of air within one's lungs may also be used in situations where several repeated trials are required...
), and from subject and physician evaluations, that the practice of the TM is a useful adjunct in the treatment of asthma.
The
American Heart AssociationThe American Heart Association is a non-profit organization in the United States that fosters appropriate cardiac care in an effort to reduce disability and deaths caused by cardiovascular disease and stroke. It is headquartered in Dallas, Texas...
has published two studies on the Transcendental Meditation technique. In 1995, the association's journal
Hypertension published the results of a randomized, controlled trial in which a group of older African-Americans practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique demonstrated a significant reduction in blood pressure. In 2000, the association's journal,
Stroke, published a study involving 127 subjects that found that, on average, the hypertensive, adult subjects who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique daily experienced reduced thickening of coronary arteries, thereby decreasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. After six to nine months, carotid intima-media thickness decreased in the group that was practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique as compared with matched control subjects.
In 2004, systematic review of five randomized clinical trials examining the effects of TM on blood pressure concluded that there was "insufficient good-quality evidence to conclude whether or not TM has a cumulative positive effect on blood pressure." The review said that the RCTs published through May 2004 had important methodological weaknesses and were potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization. A reply subsequently published in the same journal explained the methodological choices that the researchers made and why they were preferred. It noted that the collaborators on the studies included coauthors from
Harvard UniversityHarvard University is a private university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts and a member of the Ivy League. Founded in 1636 by the colonial Massachusetts legislature, Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and currently comprises ten separate academic units...
, the
University of MarylandWhen the term "University of Maryland" is used without any qualification, it generally refers to the University of Maryland, College Park.University of Maryland may refer to the following:...
, the West Oakland Health Center, the
University of ArkansasThe University of Arkansas, often shortened to U of A or just UA, is a public co-educational land-grant research university. It is the flagship campus of the University of Arkansas System and is located in Fayetteville, Arkansas. Founded as Arkansas Industrial University in 1871, its present name...
, the Haight-Ashbury Free Clinic, the
University of IowaThe University of Iowa is a public research university located in Iowa City, Iowa. The university is organized into eleven colleges granting undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees...
Hospitals and Clinics, the Georgia Institute for Prevention of Human Disease, and the
Medical College of GeorgiaThe Medical College of Georgia, also known as MCG, is a public medical research university located in downtown Augusta, Georgia. It is the state's only health sciences university. The university has five schools: Schools of Allied Health Sciences, Dentistry, Graduate Studies, Medicine and Nursing....
. The critique response also noted that blood pressure data were collected blind by independent research institutions and suggested that the authors of the critical review themselves may have been biased in their critique by their affiliation with the
Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great BritainThe Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain is the statutory regulatory and professional body for pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians in England, Scotland and Wales...
, and in being on the editorial board of a journal that is published by Pharmaceutical Press.
In 2005, the
American Journal of CardiologyThe American Journal of Cardiology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal in the field of cardiology and general cardiovascular disease. It is independent from the American College of Cardiology....
published a review of two studies that looked at stress reduction with the Transcendental Meditation technique and mortality among patients receiving treatment for high blood pressure. This study was a long-term, randomized trial. It evaluated the death rates of 202 men and women, average age 71, who had mildly elevated blood pressure. The study tracked subjects for up to 18 years and found that the group practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had death rates that were reduced by 23%. Also in 2005, the
American Journal of Hypertension published the results of a study that found the Transcendental Meditation technique may be useful as an adjunct in the long-term treatment of
hypertensionHypertension is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure is elevated. It is also referred to as high blood pressure or shortened to HT, HTN or HPN. The word "hypertension", by itself, normally refers to systemic, arterial hypertension.Hypertension can be classified as either...
among African-Americans.
In 2006, a study involving 103 subjects published in the
American Medical AssociationThe American Medical Association , founded in 1847 and incorporated 1897, is the largest association of physicians and medical students in the United States. While its membership has declined in recent years, it claims approximately 20% of practicing physicians as members...
's
Archives of Internal Medicine found that
coronary heart diseaseCoronary artery disease is the end result of the accumulation of atheromatous plaques within the walls of the coronary arteries that supply the myocardium with oxygen and nutrients...
patients who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique for 16 weeks showed improvements in blood pressure, insulin resistance, and autonomic nervous system tone, compared with a control group of patients who received health education.
Also in 2006, a functional MRI study of 24 patients conducted at the
University of CaliforniaThe University of California is a public university system in the state of California. Under the California Master Plan for Higher Education, the University of California is a part of the state's three-tier public higher education system, which also includes the California State University system...
at Irvine, and published in the journal
NeuroReport, found that the long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique may reduce the affective/motivational dimension of the brain's response to pain.
In 2007 the United States National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine released online an independent review of the state of meditation research conducted by researchers at the
University of AlbertaThe University of Alberta is a public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford, the first premier of Alberta and Henry Marshall Tory, its first president, it is widely recognized as one of the top universities in Canada...
Evidence-based Practice Center. The report used the
Jadad scaleThe Jadad scale, sometimes known as Jadad scoring or the Oxford quality scoring system, is a procedure to independently assess the methodological quality of a clinical trial...
to evaluate 813 studies, of which 230 were studies of the TM or TM-Sidhi programs. The report concluded that "[t]he therapeutic effects of meditation practices cannot be established based on the current literature," and "[f]irm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence" (p. 6). The report said that "meta-analysis based on low quality studies and small numbers of hypertensive participants showed that TM, Qi Gong and Zen Bhuddist meditation significantly reduced blood pressure" and that "choosing to practice a particular meditation technique continues to rely solely on individual experiences and personal preferences, until more conclusive scientific evidence is produced". A revised version of the review published in 2008 acknowledged that the Jadad scale may not be suitable for evaluating research on meditation and that the usual approach to double blinding, which the
Jadad scaleThe Jadad scale, sometimes known as Jadad scoring or the Oxford quality scoring system, is a procedure to independently assess the methodological quality of a clinical trial...
requires, may not be possible. The researchers revised the Jadad scores of the studies and concluded that while most of the studies were weak methodologically, 10% of the 400 clinical studies did score good or better on the Jadad scale and that there was a statistically significant improvement in quality over time.
In 2008, researchers at the
University of KentuckyThe University of Kentucky, also known as UK, is a public, co-educational, university, and is also the state's land-grant university, located in Lexington, Kentucky...
conducted a meta-analysis of nine qualifying
RCTA randomized controlled trial is a type of scientific experiment most commonly used in testing the efficacy or effectiveness of healthcare services or health technologies . RCTs are also employed in other research areas, such as judicial, educational, and social research...
published studies which used Transcendental Meditation to address patients with
hypertensionHypertension is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure is elevated. It is also referred to as high blood pressure or shortened to HT, HTN or HPN. The word "hypertension", by itself, normally refers to systemic, arterial hypertension.Hypertension can be classified as either...
, and found that on average across all nine studies the practice of TM was associated with approximate reductions of Hg systolic blood pressure and Hg diastolic blood pressure. The researchers concluded that "...Sustained blood pressure reductions of this magnitude are likely to significantly reduce risk for cardiovascular disease." The study was published in the March 2008 issue of the
American Journal of Hypertension. Using the Jadad scale, the researchers found that of the nine studies evaluated, three were of high quality with a score of 75% or greater, three were of acceptable quality, and three were of suboptimal quality.
A 2009 study titled "A Randomized Controlled Trial of the Effects of Transcendental Meditation on Quality of Life in Older Breast Cancer Patients", a collaboration between the Center for Healthy Aging at Saint Joseph Hospital; the Institute for Health Services, Research and Policy Studies at Northwestern University; the Department of Psychology at Indiana State University; and the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention at Maharishi University of Management, was published in
Integrative Cancer Therapies. The study concluded that women with breast cancer reduced their stress levels and improved their mental health and emotional well being through the use of the Transcendental Meditation technique.
Research on cognitive function
A paper published in the
Journal of Applied Psychology in 1978 found no effect on school grades. A 1985 study in the
British Journal of Educational Psychology, and a 1989 study in
Education showed improved academic performance.
A paper published in 2001 in the journal,
Intelligence, reported the effects on 362
TaiwanTaiwan , also known as Formosa , is the largest island of the Republic of China in East Asia. Taiwan is located east of the Taiwan Strait, off the southeastern coast of mainland China...
ese students of three randomized, controlled trials that used seven standardized tests. The trials measured the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique, a contemplative meditative technique from the Chinese tradition, and napping on a wide range of cognitive, emotional and perceptual functions. The three studies ranged in time from six months to one year. Results indicated that taken together, the Transcendental Meditation group had significant improvement on all seven measurements compared to the non-treatment and napping control groups. Contemplative meditation showed a significant result in two categories, and napping had no effect. The results included an increase in IQ, creativity, fluid intelligence, field independence, and practical intelligence.
In 2003, a study in the journal,
Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, reviewed 107 articles on TM and cognitive function of which ten were randomized, controlled trials that fit the inclusion criteria. Four trials showed a significant positive effect on cognitive function, four showed no effect, and two mostly showed no effect. Study authors, Canter and Ernst, noted that the four positive trials used subjects who had already intended to learn the Transcendental Meditation technique, and attributed the significant positive results to an
expectation effectThe Subject-expectancy effect, is a form of reactivity that occurs in scientific experiment or medical treatment when a research subject or patient expects a given result and therefore unconsciously affects the outcome, or reports the expected result...
. They concluded that the claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomised controlled trials.
Psychological effects
A 1990 controlled study involving 768 subjects conducted at
Sumitomo Heavy IndustriesSumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. is an integrated manufacturer of industrial machinery, automatic weaponry, ships, bridges and steel structure, equipment for environmental protection, including recycling, power transmission equipment, plastic molding machines, laser processing systems, particle...
by the
Japanis an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
ese Ministry of Labour and others looked at Transcendental Meditation and its effect on mental health in industrial workers. After a 5-month period the researchers found significant decreases in major physical complaints, impulsiveness, emotional instability, and anxiety amongst the meditators compared to controls. The meditators also showed significant decreases in digestive problems, depression, tendency toward psychosomatic disease, insomnia, and smoking.
A 1977 study in the
Journal of Clinical PsychologyThe Journal of Clinical Psychology, founded in 1945, is a peer-reviewed forum devoted to psychological research, assessment, and practice. Published eight times a year, the Journal includes research studies; articles on contemporary professional issues, single case research; brief reports ; notes...
showed reduced anxiety in practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation technique compared to controls who relaxed passively. A 1989 meta-analysis published in the
Journal of Clinical Psychology compared 146 independent studies on the effect of different meditation and relaxation techniques in reducing trait anxiety. Transcendental Meditation was found to produce a larger effect than other forms of meditation and relaxation in the reduction of trait anxiety. Additionally, it was concluded that the difference between Transcendental Meditation and the other meditation and relaxation techniques appeared too large to be accounted for by the expectation effect.
Studies show that TM reduces the number of seizures in epileptic patients and normalizes their
EEGEEG commonly refers to electroencephalography, a measurement of the electrical activity of the brain.EEG may also refer to:* Emperor Entertainment Group, a Hong Kong-based entertainment company...
. An experimental study that was done on the Transcendental Meditation technique and
epilepsyEpilepsy is a common chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures...
found that the epileptic patients initially had abnormally low levels of 5-HIAA in the cerebral spinal fluid, which then increased to normal levels after several months of practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. This correlated with clinical improvements in these patients.
Carrington and Ephron reported on the successful use of the Transcendental Meditation technique as an adjunct to psychotherapy, though for some patients the process entailed feeling overwhelmed by negative and unpleasant thoughts during meditation.
Federally funded research
As of 1975, the Federal Government had funded 17 Transcendental Meditation research projects, ranging from the effects of meditation on the body to its ability to help rehabilitate convicts and fight alcoholism. By 2004, the
National Institutes of HealthThe National Institutes of Health is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and health-related research. It consists of 27 separate institutes and centers which includes the Office...
(NIH) had spent more than $20 million funding research on the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on heart disease
http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105. In 1999, the NIH awarded a grant of nearly $8 million to Maharishi University of Management to establish the first research center specializing in natural preventive medicine for minorities in the U.S. The research institute, called the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention, was inaugurated on October 11, 1999, at the University's Department of Physiology and Health in Fairfield, Iowa. The NIH funding has come via the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine and from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.
Relationship to religion and spirituality
An official Transcendental Meditation websites states that the Transcendental Meditation technique is a mental technique for deep rest that is associated with specific effects on mind and body, practiced by people of all religions and that it does not require faith, belief, or a change in lifestyle to be effective as a relaxation technique.
Maharishi called the Transcendental Meditation technique "a path to God", and the Transcendental Meditation technique has been described as "spiritual" but not religious, and as a coping strategy for life. According to Time Magazine, Transcendental Meditation owes something to all major religious traditions—
ChristianityChristianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented by the revelations in the New Testament....
,
JudaismJudaism is a set of beliefs and practices originating in the Hebrew Bible , as later further explored and explained in the Talmud and other texts...
and
IslamIslam Islam Islam ( al-’islām,
[There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or , and whether the a is pronounced as in father, as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) as in the a of sofa...]
, as well as the Eastern faiths— because at one time or another they have included both meditation and the repetition of a mantra-like word. A common misconception is that TM has religious connotations – possibly cultish in nature, resulting from the Maharishi’s association with George Harrison, who was an enthusiastic advocate of Indian religions.
Former
Maharishi University of ManagementMaharishi University of Management , formerly known as Maharishi International University, was founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who introduced the Transcendental Meditation technique....
Dean of College of Arts and Sciences, and Associate Professor of Education James Grant writes in a chapter of the book titled,
The University in Transformation, that the Maharishi's techniques for the development of consciousness are non-sectarian and require no belief system. He goes on to say that millions of people from many cultures and many faiths have benefited from these techniques.
In
The Sociology of Religious Movements,
William Sims BainbridgeWilliam Sims Bainbridge is an American sociologist who currently resides in Virginia. He is co-director of Human-Centered Computing at the National Science Foundation and also teaches sociology as a part-time professor at George Mason University. He is the first Senior Fellow to be appointed by...
has found Transcendental Meditation to be a "...highly simplified form of Hinduism, adapted for Westerners who did not possess the cultural background to accept the full panoply of Hindu beliefs, symbols, and practices." Going on to note that TM is an example of a "missionary" religious group which distills the essence of its own religious traditions to make itself more acceptable to its intended audience, Bainbridge describes the Transcendental Meditation puja ceremony as "...in essence, a religious initiation ceremony".
PrayerPrayer is the act of addressing a god or spirit for the purpose of worship or petition. Specific forms of this may include praise, requesting guidance or assistance, confessing sins, as an act of reparation or an expression of one's thoughts and emotions...
has been compared with meditation and the specific technique known as Transcendental Meditation (TM). However, “meditational prayer” does not always imply religion.
Author Roger LeBlanc writes: "It’s not a religion... The Transcendental Meditation technique is a simple, natural technique practiced by millions of people of all religions, including clergy. Practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique does not require or involve faith or any particular set of beliefs." Practionars of the Transcendental Meditation technique may use their meditation to supplement other faiths, or no faith at all.
Clergy have varying views when assessing the compatibility of the Transcendental Meditation technique with their religions. Jaime Sin, a
cardinalThe word cardinal comes from the Latin cardo for "hinge" and usually refers to things of fundamental importance, as in cardinal rule or cardinal sins.Cardinal may refer to:...
and the
ArchbishopIn Christianity, an archbishop is an elevated bishop. In many Christian Churches, this means that they lead a diocese of particular importance called an archdiocese, or in the Anglican Communion an Ecclesiastical Province, but this is not always the case. An archbishop is equivalent to a bishop in...
of
ManilaThe City of Manila , or simply Manila or Maynila, is the capital of the Philippines and one of the 17 cities and municipalities that make up Metro Manila. It is located on the eastern shores of Manila Bay, on the western portion of the National Capital Region, in the western side of Luzon...
, wrote in 1984 that neither the doctrine nor the practice of TM are acceptable to Christians. In 1989, a Vatican council published a warning against mixing eastern meditation, such as TM, with Christian prayer. Other clergy, including Catholic clergy, have found the Transcendental Meditation technique to be compatible with their religious teachings and beliefs.
Charles H. Lippy, author of
Pluralism Comes of Age: American Religious Culture in the Twentieth Century writes that earlier spiritual interest in the Transcendental Meditation technique faded in the 1970’s and it became a practical technique that anyone could employ without abandoning their religious affiliation. Though religious in origin, going back for several thousand years, Transcendental Meditation as introduced to the West is not attached to religion. Rather is it a means for developing human potential.
In 1979, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the decision of the US District Court of
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It is bordered on the north by New York, and to the east by the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, the Arthur Kill, Raritan Bay, Sandy Hook Bay, Westchester County, New York City, Long Island, and...
that a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI)/Transcendental Meditation, was religious activity within the meaning of the
Establishment ClauseThe Establishment Clause of the First Amendment refers to the first of several pronouncements in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, stating that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion". Together with the Free Exercise Clause, The Establishment...
and that the teaching of SCI/TM in the New Jersey public high schools was prohibited by the
First AmendmentThe First Amendment to the United States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights. The amendment prohibits the Congress from making laws "respecting an establishment of religion", prohibiting the free exercise of religion, infringing on the freedom of speech and infringing on the freedom of the...
. The court ruled that, although SCI/TM is not a theistic religion, it deals with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions. The court found that the religious nature of the course was clear from careful examination of the textbook, the expert testimony elicited, and the uncontested facts concerning the puja, but was also largely determined by apparent involvement of government.
The court also found state action violative of the Establishment Clause, because the puja involved "offerings to deities as part of a regularly scheduled course in the schools' educational programs".
In 2006, twenty five (25) public, private and
charter schoolCharter schools are elementary or secondary schools in the United States that receive public money but have been freed from some of the rules, regulations, and statutes that apply to other public schools in exchange for some type of accountability for producing certain results, which are set forth...
s offered Transcendental Meditation to their students. The Terra Linda High School in San Rafael in California, canceled plans for Transcendental Meditation classes due to concerns of parents that it would be promoting religion.
University of South CarolinaThe University of South Carolina is a public, co-educational, research university located in Columbia, South Carolina, United States...
sociologist Barry Markovsky describes teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique in schools as "stealth religion".
Cult issues
In 1987, the
Cult Awareness NetworkThe Cult Awareness Network was founded in the wake of the November 18, 1978 deaths of members of the group Peoples Temple and assassination of Congressman Leo J. Ryan in Jonestown, Guyana. CAN is now owned and operated by associates of the Church of Scientology, an organization that the original...
(CAN) held a press conference and demonstration in
Washington, D.C.Washington, D.C. , formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States, founded on July 16, 1790...
, saying that the organization that teaches the Transcendental Meditation technique "seeks to strip individuals of their ability to think and choose freely." Steve Hassan, author of several books on cults, and at one time a CAN deprogrammer, said in the same press conference that members display cult-like behaviors, such as the use of certain language and particular ways of dressing. A former member called the yogic flying training a "totalitarian environment", while a spokesman for the TM organization said that they "don't force people to take courses". Former members also said that the movement is a religion, and that the Maharishi is seen as a god. Cult-like tendencies are described in
Michael A. Persinger'sMichael A. Persinger , is a cognitive neuroscience researcher and university professor. He has worked at Laurentian University, Canada since 1971 .-Early life:...
book,
TM and Cult Mania, published in 1980.
David Orme-JohnsonDavid W. Orme-Johnson is a retired professor of psychology. He is the author of over 100 papers investigating the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique.-Early life and education:...
, former faculty member at
Maharishi University of ManagementMaharishi University of Management , formerly known as Maharishi International University, was founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who introduced the Transcendental Meditation technique....
(at which all students and faculty practice the Transcendental Meditation technique daily), who has researched the Transcendental Meditation technique and the
paranormalParanormal is a general term that describes unusual experiences that lack a scientific explanation, or phenomena alleged to be outside of science's current ability to explain or measure...
Maharishi Effect, cites studies by Schecter, Alexander and Pelletier showing greater autonomy, innovative thought, and increases in creativity, general intelligence and moral reasoning in those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique. According to Orme-Johnson, cult followers are said to operate on blind faith and adherence to arbitrary rules and authority, while these studies would indicate the ability of those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique to make mature, independent, principle-based judgments.
Marc Galanter MD, Professor of Psychiatry at
New York UniversityNew York University is a private, nonsectarian, research university in New York City. NYU's main campus is situated in the Greenwich Village section of Manhattan...
(NYU), writes in his book
Cults: Faith, Healing and CoercionCults: Faith, Healing and Coercion is a non-fiction book on cults and coercive persuasion, written by Marc Galanter . The book was published in hardcover format in 1989 by Oxford University Press, and again in hardcover in 1999 in a second edition work...
that TM "evolved into something of a charismatic movement, with a belief system that transcended the domain of its practice". He notes how a variety of unreasonable beliefs came to be seen as literally true by its "more committed members". He cites an "unlikely set of beliefs" that includes the ability to levitate and reduce traffic accidents and conflicts in the Middle East through the practice of meditation.
In his book
Soul snatchers: the mechanics of cults,
Jean-Marie AbgrallJean-Marie Abgrall, born April 12, 1950 in Toulon, France, is a French psychiatrist, criminologist, specialist in forensic medicine, cult consultant, and graduate in criminal law. He has been an expert witness at the Supreme Court of Appeal and Court for Businesses in France on the subject of...
describes how Altered States Of Consciousness (ASCs) are used in many cults to make the initiate more susceptible to the group will and world view. He cites research by Barmark and Gautnitz which showed the similarities between the states obtained by Transcendental Meditation and ASCs. In this way not only does the subject become more reliant on the ASC but it allows for a weakening of criticism of the cult and increase in faith therein. Abgrall goes on to note that the use of mantras is one of the most widespread techniques in cults, noting in TM this mantra is produced mentally. He says that a guru is usually central to a cult and that its success will rely on how effective that guru is. Among the common characteristics of a
guruA guru is one who is regarded as having great knowledge, wisdom and authority in a certain area, and who uses it to guide others . As a principle for the development of consciousness it leads the creation from unreality to reality, from the darkness of ignorance to the light of knowledge...
he notes paraphrenia, a mental illness that completely cuts the individual from reality. In regard to this he notes for example, that Maharishi recommended the TM-Sidhi program including 'yogic flying' as a way to reduce crime.
In his book
The Elementary Forms of The New Religious Life,
Roy WallisRoy Wallis, was a sociologist and Dean of the Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences at the Queen's University Belfast. He is mostly known for his creation of the seven signs that differentiate a religious congregation from a sectarian church, which he created while researching the Scientology...
describes TM as having moved beyond being a cult to a "Sect". He notes similarities between progression in TM and progression within
ScientologyScientology is a body of beliefs and related practices created by L. Ron Hubbard , starting in 1952, as a successor to his earlier self-help system, Dianetics. Hubbard characterized Scientology as a religion, and in 1953 incorporated the Church of Scientology in New Jersey.Scientology teaches that...
(In Scientology progression from "Basic" to "Operating Theten" and in TM from basic TM instruction to the TM-Sidhi program). He notes that whereas once the initiatory stage was important and the "goal", this now becomes simply a prerequisite for training to higher "powers" or abilities. He argues that this helps facilitate group control over members rather that allowing them to come to their own judgment. Thus this progression becomes a strong form of social control.
Reporter Michael D’Antonio wrote in his book, “Heaven on Earth – Dispatches from America’s Spiritual Frontier” that, as practiced at
Maharishi International UniversityMaharishi University of Management , formerly known as Maharishi International University, was founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who introduced the Transcendental Meditation technique....
, Transcendental Meditation is “a cult, not a culture”. D'Antonio wrote that Transcendental Meditation was like the worst of religion: rigid, unreasonable, repressive, and authoritarian, characterized by overt manipulation, a disregard for serious scholarship, and an unwillingness to question authority. For the first time in his travels he found people he believed to be truly deluded, and a physics department teaching theories that were dead wrong. . D’Antonio charges that they have taken Transcendental Meditiation “into a grandiose narcissistic dream, a form of intellectual bondage, that they call enlightenment”.
Clarke and Linzey argue that for the ordinary membership of TM their lives and daily concerns are little — if at all — affected by its
cultCult may popularly refer to a religious group with relatively few adherents whose beliefs or practices are regarded by others as strange or sinister.The term "cult" was originally used to denote a system of ritual practices...
nature. Instead, as is the case for
ScientologyScientology is a body of beliefs and related practices created by L. Ron Hubbard , starting in 1952, as a successor to his earlier self-help system, Dianetics. Hubbard characterized Scientology as a religion, and in 1953 incorporated the Church of Scientology in New Jersey.Scientology teaches that...
, it is only the core membership, who must give total dedication to the movement.
Lawsuit
Kropinski v. WPEC
In a civil suit against the
World Plan Executive CouncilMaharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation is an American non-profit organization, incorporated in the state of Massachusetts in 1993....
filed in 1985, Robert Kropinski claimed
fraudIn the broadest sense, a fraud is an intentional deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual. The specific legal definition varies by legal jurisdiction. Fraud is a crime, and is also a civil law violation....
, psychological, physical, and emotional harm as a result of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs. The district court dismissed Kropinski's claims concerning intentional
tortTort law is a body of law that addresses, and provides remedies for, civil wrongs not arising out of contractual obligations. A person who suffers legal damages may be able to use tort law to receive compensation from someone who is legally responsible, or liable, for those injuries...
and negligent infliction of emotional distress, and referred the claims of fraud and negligent infliction of physical and psychological injuries to a
juryA jury is a sworn body of people convened to render an impartial verdict officially submitted to them by a court, or to set a penalty or judgment...
trial. The jury awarded Robert Kropinski $137,890 in the fraud and negligence claims. The
appellate courtAn appellate court is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal. In most jurisdictions, the court system is divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts...
overturned the award and dismissed Kropinski's claim alleging psychological damage. It also dismissed testimony related to the fraud claim. The claim of fraud and the claim of a physical injury related to his practice of the TM-Sidhi program were remanded to the lower court for retrial, and the parties then settled these remaining claims out of court.
See also
- John Hagelin
John Hagelin is an American scientist who was a researcher at the European Center for Particle Physics and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center , is an educator and author, and has been the Natural Law Party candidate for President of the United States three times...
- David Lynch Foundation
The David Lynch Foundation For Consciousness-Based Education and World Peace is a charitable foundation based in Fairfield, Iowa, which operates throughout the world....
- Fairfield, Iowa
Fairfield is a city in Jefferson County, Iowa, United States. The population was 9,509 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Jefferson County.-Geography:...
- Natural Law Party
The Natural Law Party is a defunct political party founded in the USA and around the world. The party platform was based on the concept that Natural Law is the organizing principle that governs the universe, and that the problems of humanity are caused by people violating natural law...
- TM Song
Not to be confused with "Transcendental Meditation", also by The Beach Boys."TM Song" is a song written by Brian Wilson for the American pop band The Beach Boys.-The song:TM song was released on the Beach Boys 1976 album 15 Big Ones...
- Transcendental Meditation (song)
Not to be confused with "TM Song", also by The Beach Boys."Transcendental Meditation" is a song written by Brian Wilson, Mike Love and Al Jardine for the American pop band The Beach Boys.-The song:...
- TM and Cult Mania
TM and Cult Mania is a 1980 book authored by Michael Persinger, Normand Carrey and Lynn Sues of the Neuroscience Laboratory....
- Mentmore Towers
Mentmore Towers is a large Neo-Renaissance English country house in the village of Mentmore in Buckinghamshire. It takes its name from the village in which it stands, and from its numerous towers and pinnacles. Historically it was always known simply as 'Mentmore', and by locals and estate staff as...
- Catching the Big Fish
Catching the Big Fish: Meditation, Consciousness, and Creativity is a book by fim director David Lynch.-The book:Catching the Big Fish was inspired by Lynch's experiences with Transcendental Meditation , which he began practicing TM in 1973...
Further reading
- Denniston, Denise, The TM Book, Fairfield Press, Fairfield, Iowa, 1986 ISBN 093178302X
- Geoff Gilpin, The Maharishi Effect: A Personal Journey Through the Movement That Transformed American Spirituality, Tarcher-Penguin 2006, ISBN 1-58542-507-9
- Kropinski v. World Plan Executive Council, 853 F, 2d 948, 956 (D.C. Cir, 1988)
- Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary, Chapters 1-6. ISBN 0140192476.
- Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Science of Being and Art of Living : Transcendental Meditation ISBN 0452282667.