Surrogacy is an arrangement in which a woman carries and delivers a child for another couple or person. This woman may be the child's
genetic motherGenetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
(called
traditional surrogacy), or she may carry the pregnancy to delivery after having an
embryoAn embryo is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the time of first cell division until birth, hatching, or germination...
, to which she has no genetic relationship whatsoever, transferred to her uterus (called
gestational surrogacy). If the pregnant woman received compensation for carrying and delivering the child (besides medical and other reasonable expenses) the arrangement is called a
commercial surrogacy, otherwise the arrangement is sometimes referred to as an
altruistic surrogacy.
In a traditional surrogacy the child may be conceived via home
artificial inseminationArtificial insemination, or AI, is the process by which sperm is placed into the reproductive tract of a female for the purpose of impregnating the female by using means other than sexual intercourse or natural insemination...
using fresh or frozen sperm or impregnated via IUI (intrauterine insemination), or ICI (intracervical insemination) performed at a health clinic.
The social parents (that is, those that intend to raise the child) may arrange a surrogate pregnancy because of
homosexualityHomosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions" primarily or exclusively to people of the same...
,
female infertility-Causes and factors:Causes or factors of female infertility can basically be classified regarding whether they are acquired or genetic, or strictly by location.-Acquired versus genetic:...
, or other medical issues which may make the pregnancy or delivery impossible, risky or otherwise undesirable. The social mother could also be fertile and healthy, and prefer the convenience of someone else undergoing pregnancy, labor, and delivery for her. The intended parent could also be a single man or woman wishing to have his/her own biological child.
In Nebraska, involuntarily childless couples are encouraged to adopt instead of looking for a surrogate. However, this idea is not always a practical one—adoption is a long, expensive process. Adoptions typically require the individuals to be married, of a certain age, and sometimes married a certain number of years before they are even considered for adoption. Some agencies may prohibit adoptions based on disabilities and sexual orientations, and also may require one of the new adoptive parents to stay home with the adopted child for a certain amount of time following the adoption.
It is encouraged for the woman wanting to be a surrogate mother to be financially stable. This would prevent woman wanting to become surrogates due to financial need and also would minimize possible exploitation. However, it is historically unlikely that prospective parents would hastily choose a possible surrogate who was not financially reliable.
A large controversy is the impact of a future relationship that the surrogate might have the child after it is born. It is a cultural assumption that normal women do not become pregnant with the premise of being reimbursed monetarily, and that women naturally develop a bond with the child they give birth to.
The legality of surrogacy arrangements vary widely between jurisdictions.
History
Having another woman bear a child for a couple to raise, usually with the male half of the couple as the genetic father, is referred to in antiquity. Babylonian law and custom allowed this practice and infertile woman could use the practice to avoid the divorce which would otherwise be inevitable.
In the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, the issue of surrogacy was widely publicized in the case of
Baby MBaby M was the pseudonym used In re Baby M, 537 A.2d 1227, 109 N.J. 396 for the infant named Sara Elizabeth Whitehead at her birth, and later named Melissa Stern by her father and adoptive mother....
, in which the surrogate and biological mother of Melissa Stern ("Baby M"), born in 1986, refused to cede custody of Melissa to the couple with whom she had made the surrogacy agreement. The courts of
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. , its population was 8,791,894. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania and on the southwest by Delaware...
found that Mary Beth Whitehead was the child's legal mother and declared contracts for surrogate motherhood illegal and invalid. However, the court found it in the best interests of the infant to award custody of Melissa to her biological father William Stern and his wife Elizabeth Stern, rather than to the surrogate mother Mary Beth Whitehead.
There have been cases of clashes between surrogate mothers and the genetic parents; when unexpected complications with the fetus makes the genetic parents ask for an abortion even though the surrogate mother is opposing the abortion.
Legality
The legal aspects surrounding surrogacy are very complex and mostly unsettled. There is a default legal assumption in most countries that the woman giving birth to a child is that child's legal mother. In some jurisdictions the possibility of surrogacy has been legally allowed and as a result, the intended parents may be recognized as the legal parents right from the birth of a baby.
Many states now issue pre-birth orders through the courts placing the name(s) of the intended parent(s) on the birth certificate from the start.
In other states that do not issue such orders, the possibility of surrogacy is either not recognized (all contracts specifying different legal parents are void), or is prohibited.
Australia
In all states in
AustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
(except Tasmania which bans all surrogacy under the
Surrogacy Contracts Act 1993), altruistic surrogacy has been the only recently recognized surrogacy that has become legal. However, in all states and the Australian Capital Territory arranging commercial surrogacy is a criminal offense, although the
Northern TerritoryThe Northern Territory is a federal territory of Australia, occupying much of the centre of the mainland continent, as well as the central northern regions...
has no legislation governing surrogacy at all and there are no plans to introduce laws on surrogacy into the NT Legislative Assembly in near the future.
In 2006, Australian senator
Stephen ConroyStephen Michael Conroy is an Australian politician and the current Minister for Broadband, Communications and the Digital Economy in the Gillard Ministry...
and his wife Paula Benson announced that they had arranged for a child to be born through egg donation and gestational surrogacy. Unusually, Conroy was put on the
birth certificateA birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a child. The term "birth certificate" can refer to either the original document certifying the circumstances of the birth or to a certified copy of or representation of the ensuing registration of that birth...
as the father of the child. Previously, couples who used to make surrogacy arrangements in Australia had to adopt the child after it was registered as born to the natural mother; rather than being recognized as birth parents, however now that surrogacy is more regular practice for childless parents; most states have switched to such arrangements to give the intended parents proper rights.
After the announcement, Victoria changed their legislation since 1 January 2010, under the
Assisted Reproductive Treatment Act 2008 to make altruistic surrogacy within the state legal, however commercial surrogacy is illegal.
Since 1 June 2010 in Queensland, altruistic surrogacy is legal under the
Surrogacy Act 2010 No 2. Yet, the commercial surrogacy is still illegal under the legislation.
Similarly, in both New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, altruistic surrogacy is legal under the
Surrogacy Act 2010 No 102 and the
Parentage Act 2004, respectively.
In Western Australia (under the
Surrogacy Act 2008) and South Australia (under the
Family Relationships Act 1975) altruistic surrogacy is only legal for couples consisting of the opposite sex (single people and same sex couples are banned from altruistic surrogacy). In 2011, Tasmania lawmakers after a review of the laws and a community consultation process introduced the
Surrogacy Bill 2011 and the
Surrogacy (Consequential Amendments) Bill 2011 to the lower house and passed the lower house by a vote of 22-3. Now it is yet to pass the conservative upper house of 15 members (12 of them being independent members, 2 Labor and 1 Liberal).
Canada
Canada allows surrogacy and it is governed by the Assisted Human Reproduction Act (AHRC) - and it outlines that all expenses that are contributed to the surrogacy can be paid to the surrogate by the intended parents. Expenses must be accompanied with official receipts.
France
In France, since 1994, any surrogacy arrangement that is commercial or altruistic, is illegal or unlawful and is not sanctioned by the law (art 16-7 of the Code Civil).
The French Courts the Cessation already took this point of view in 1991. It held that if any couple makes an agreement or arranges with another person that she is to bear the husband's child and surrender it on birth to the couple, and that she is choosing that she will not keep the child, the couple making such an agreement or arrangement, is not allowed to adopt the child. In its judgment the court held that such an agreement is illegal on the basis of articles 6 & 1128 of the Code Civil, together with article 353 of the same code.
Georgia (Country)
Surrogacy, along with ovum and sperm donation, has been legal in
GeorgiaGeorgia is a sovereign state in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the southwest by Turkey, to the south by Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. The capital of...
since 1992. Under applicable law, a donor or surrogate mother has no parental rights over the child born.
Hong Kong
Commercial surrogacy is criminal under the Human Reproductive Technology Ordinance 2000. The law is phrased in a manner that no one can pay a surrogate, no surrogate can receive money, and no one can arrange a commercial surrogacy (the same applies to the supply of gametes), no matter within or outside Hong Kong. Normally only the gametes of the intended parents can be used.
In October 2010, Peter Lee, the eldest son and one of the presumed heirs of billionnaire
Lee Shau KeeLee Shau-kee GBM is a property developer and majority owner of Henderson Land Development , a property conglomerate with interests in properties, hotels, restaurants and internet services...
obtained three sons through a surrogate mother, reportedly from California. Since the junior Lee is single, the news attracted criticism on both moral and legal grounds. A
vicar generalA vicar general is the principal deputy of the bishop of a diocese for the exercise of administrative authority. As vicar of the bishop, the vicar general exercises the bishop's ordinary executive power over the entire diocese and, thus, is the highest official in a diocese or other particular...
of the territory's Roman Catholic diocese was critical. In December the case was reportedly referred to police after questions were asked in
LegcoThe Legislative Council is the unicameral legislature of Hong Kong.-History:The Legislative Council of Hong Kong was set up in 1843 as a colonial legislature under British rule...
.
India
Commercial surrogacy is legal in India, as recognized by the
Supreme Court of IndiaThe Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial forum and final court of appeal as established by Part V, Chapter IV of the Constitution of India...
in 2002. India is emerging as a leader in international surrogacy and a destination in surrogacy-related
fertility tourismFertility tourism or reproductive tourism is the practice of traveling to another country for fertility treatments. It may be regarded as a form of medical tourism. The main reasons for fertility tourism are legal regulation of the sought procedure in the home country, or lower price...
. Indian surrogates have been increasingly popular with fertile couples in industrialized nations because of the relatively low cost. Indian clinics are at the same time becoming more competitive, not just in the pricing, but in the hiring and retention of Indian females as surrogates. Clinics charge patients between $10,000 and $28,000 for the complete package, including fertilization, the surrogate's fee, and delivery of the baby at a hospital. Including the costs of flight tickets, medical procedures and hotels, it comes to roughly a third of the price compared with going through the procedure in the UK.
The Honorable Supreme Court of India has given the verdict that the citizenship of the child born through this process will have the citizenship of its surrogate mother.
Israel
In March 1996, the Israeli government legalized gestational surrogacy under the "Embryo Carrying Agreements Law." This law made Israel the first country in the world to implement a form of state-controlled surrogacy in which each and every contract must be approved directly by the state. A state-appointed committee permits surrogacy arrangements to be filed only by Israeli citizens who share the same religion. Surrogates must be single, widowed or divorced and only infertile heterosexual couples are allowed to hire surrogates.
The numerous restrictions on surrogacy under Israeli law have prompted some intended parents to turn to surrogates outside of the country.
Japan
In March 2008, the Science Council of
JapanJapan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
proposed a ban on surrogacy and said that doctors, agents and their clients should be punished for commercial surrogacy arrangements.
Netherlands and Belgium
Altrustic surrogacy is legal in Belgium and the Netherlands. Only commercial surrogacy is illegal in Belgium and the Netherlands. Although altrustic surrogacy is legal, there is only one hospital taking in couples and there are extremely strict rules to get in. This makes a lot of couples seek their treatment outside the Netherlands or Belgium.
Pakistan
In Karachi and Lahore, many hospitals are doing this business, government of Pakistan has not yet defined any policy on Surrogacy.
Russian Federation
Gestational surrogacy, even commercial [is legal in Russia], being [available for practically all adults willing to be parents]. There has to be a certain medical indication for surrogacy: absence of uterus; uterine cavity or cervix deformity; uterine cavity synechia; somatic diseases contraindicating child bearing; repeatedly failed IVF attempts, when high-quality embryos were repeatedly obtained and their transfer wasn’t followed by pregnancy.
The first surrogacy program in Russia was successfully implemented in 1995 at the IVF centre of the Obstetrics and Gynecology Institute in St. Petersburg. The public opinion is surrogacy-friendly, recent cases of a famous singer and a well-known business-woman, who openly used services of gestational surrogates received very positive news coverage.
A few Russian women such as Ekaterina Zakharova, Natalija Klimova, Lamara Kelesheva became grandmothers through postmortem gestational surrogacy programs, their surrogate grandsons being conceived posthumously after the death of their sons.
Registration of children born through surrogacy is regulated by the Family Code of Russia (art. 51-52) and the Law on Acts on Civil Status (art. 16). A surrogate’s consent is needed for that. Apart from that consent, no adoption nor court decision is required. The surrogate’s name is never listed on the birth certificate.
There is no requirement for the child to be genetically related to at least one of the commissioning parents.
Children born to heterosexual couples who are not officially married or single intended parents through gestational surrogacy are registered in accordance to analogy of jus (art. 5 of the Family Code). A court decision might be needed for that. On August 5, 2009 a St. Petersburg court definitely resolved a dispute whether single women could apply for surrogacy and obliged the State Registration Authority to register a 35 year old single intended mother Nataliya Gorskaya as the mother of her “surrogate” son.
On 4 August 2010, a Moscow court ruled that a single man who applied for gestational surrogacy (using donor eggs) could be registered as the only parent of his son, becoming the first man in Russia to defend his right to become a father through a court procedure. The surrogate mother’s name was not listed on the birth certificate, the father was listed as the only parent. After that a few more identical decisions concerning single men who became fathers through surrogacy were adopted by different courts in Russia listing men as the only parents of their “surrogate” children and confirming that prospective single parents, regardless of their sex or sexual orientation, can exercise their right to parenthood through surrogacy in Russia.
Liberal legislation makes Russia attractive for “reproductive tourists” looking for techniques not available in their countries. Intended parents come there for oocyte donation, because of advanced age or marital status (single women and single men) and when surrogacy is considered. Foreigners have the same rights as for assisted reproduction as Russian citizens. Within 3 days after the birth the commissioning parents obtain a Russian birth certificate with both their names on it. Genetic relation to the child (in case of donation) just doesn’t matter.
Saudi Arabia
Religious authorities in Saudi Arabia do not allow the use of surrogate mothers, instead suggested medical procedures to restore female fertility and ability to deliver. To this end, Saudi authorities sanctioned the world's first uterus transplant in an infertile woman.
Sweden
Surrogacy is not clearly regulated in Swedish law. The legal procedure most equivalent to it is making an adoption of the child from the surrogate mother. However, the surrogate mother thereby has the right to keep the child if she changes her mind until the adoption. Yet, the biological father may claim right to the child.
It is illegal for Swedish fertility clinics to make surrogate arrangements.
Ukraine
Since 2002, surrogacy and surrogacy in combination with egg/sperm donation has been absolutely legal in
UkraineUkraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
. According to the law a donor or a surrogate mother has no parental rights over the child born and the child born is legally the child of the prospective parents.
In Ukraine the start of introduction of methods of supporting reproductive medicine was given in eighties of the preceding century. It was Kharkov where the extracorporeal fertilization method was for the first time successfully applied in
UkraineUkraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
, and in 1991 a girl named Katy was born. Kharkiv was also the first city in
CISCIS usually refers to the Commonwealth of Independent States, a modern political entity consisting of eleven former Soviet Union republics.The acronym CIS may also refer to:-Organizations:...
countries to realize surrogacy. Many clinics dealing with surrogacy have been opened in
KievKiev or Kyiv is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press....
and
LvivLviv is a city in western Ukraine. The city is regarded as one of the main cultural centres of today's Ukraine and historically has also been a major Polish and Jewish cultural center, as Poles and Jews were the two main ethnicities of the city until the outbreak of World War II and the following...
.
Ukrainian surrogacy laws are very favorable and fully support the individual's reproductive rights. Surrogacy is officially regulated by Clause 123 of the Family Code of Ukraine and Order 771 of the Health Ministry of Ukraine. You can choose between Gestational Surrogacy, Egg/sperm Donation, special Embryo adoption programs and their combinations. No specific permission from any regulatory body is required for that. A written informed consent of all parties (intended parents and surrogate) participating in the surrogacy program is mandatory.
Ukrainian legislation allows intended parents to carry on a surrogacy program and their names will be on Birth certificate of the child born as a result of the surrogacy program from the very beginning. The child is considered to be legally "belonging" to the prospective parents from the very moment of conception. The surrogate’s name is never listed on the birth certificate. The surrogate can't keep the child after the birth. Even if a donation program took place and there is no biological relation between the child and intended parents, their names will be on Birth certificate (Clause 3 of article 123 of the Family Code of Ukraine).
Embryo research is also allowed, gamete and embryo donation permitted on a commercial level. Single women can be treated by known or anonymous donor insemination. Gestational surrogacy is an option for officially married couples and single women. There is no such concept as gay/lesbian marriage in Ukraine, meanwhile such patients can be treated as single women/men.
United Kingdom
Commercial surrogacy arrangements are not legal in the
United KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. Such arrangements were prohibited by the
Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985The Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that prohibits commercial surrogacy arrangements. It received Royal Assent on 16 July 1985....
. Whilst it is illegal in the UK to pay more than expenses for a surrogacy, the relationship is recognised under section 30 of the
Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990The 1990 Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.-Coverage:The act covers several areas:# The licensing of human fertility treatment involving the use of donated genetic material ....
. Regardless of contractual or financial consideration for expenses, surrogacy arrangements are not legally enforceable within the United Kingdom. A surrogate mother still maintains the legal right of determination for the child, even if they are genetically unrelated. Unless a parental order or adoption order is made the surrogate mother remains the legal mother of the child.
United States
Surrogacy and its attendant legal issues fall under state jurisdiction and the legal situation for surrogacy varies greatly from state to state. Some states have written legislation, while others have developed common law regimes for dealing with surrogacy issues. Some states facilitate surrogacy and surrogacy contracts, others simply refuse to enforce them, and some penalize commercial surrogacy. Surrogacy friendly states tend to enforce both commercial and altruistic surrogacy contracts and facilitate straightforward ways for the intended parents to be recognized as the child's legal parents. Some relatively surrogacy friendly states only offer support for married heterosexual couples. Generally, only gestational surrogacy is supported and traditional surrogacy finds little to no legal support.
States generally considered to be surrogacy friendly include California, Illinois , and Maryland , among others.
For legal purposes, what matters is where the contract is completed, where the surrogate mother resides, and where the birth takes place. Therefore, individuals living in a non-friendly state can still benefit from the polices of surrogacy friendly states by working with a surrogate who lives and will give birth in a friendly state.
California
California is known to be a surrogacy friendly state; it regularly enforces gestational surrogacy contracts and makes it possible to establish the intended parents as the legal parents with a pre-birth order. It attracts intended parents from around the country, including, because of its relatively friendly civil rights regime, many LGBT individuals. Women working as surrogates include many military wives who use it to supplement their income and help others create families while their own partners are deployed.
New York
New York law holds that commercial surrogacy contracts contravene public policy and provides for civil penalties for those who participate in or facilitate a commercial surrogacy contract in New York. Altruistic surrogacy contracts are not penalized, but neither are they enforced. New York does recognize pre-birth orders from other states, and has provided a post-birth adoption alternative for altruistic surrogate parents via orders of maternal and paternal filiation.
Ethical issues
According to professor Bryan Caplan,
libertariansLibertarianism, in the strictest sense, is the political philosophy that holds individual liberty as the basic moral principle of society. In the broadest sense, it is any political philosophy which approximates this view...
have, since
VoltaireFrançois-Marie Arouet , better known by the pen name Voltaire , was a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion, free trade and separation of church and state...
, emphasized the fact that it is not right to forbid people from doing things that others do not accept. However, according to Caplan also non-liberals should support paid surrogacy: creating a human life is almost always good and
voluntary exchangeVoluntary exchange is the act of buyers and sellers freely and willingly engaging in market transactions. Moreover, transactions are made in such a way that both the buyer and the seller are better off after the exchange than before it occurred...
is usually beneficial for all participants, also in surrogacy.
Mother-child relationship
A study by the Family and Child Psychology Research Centre at
City University, LondonCity University London , is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom. It was founded in 1894 as the Northampton Institute and became a university in 1966, when it adopted its present name....
,
UKThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
in 2002 concluded that surrogate mothers rarely had difficulty relinquishing rights to a surrogate child and that the intended mothers showed greater warmth to the child than mothers conceiving naturally. Anthropological studies of surrogates have shown that surrogates engage in various distancing techniques throughout the surrogate pregnancy so as to ensure that they do not become emotionally attached to the baby. Many surrogates intentionally try to foster the development of emotional attachment between the intended mother and the surrogate child. Instead of the popular expectation that surrogates feel traumatized after relinquishment, an overwhelming majority describe feeling empowered by their surrogacy experience. In fact, quantitative and qualitative studies of surrogates over the past twenty years, mostly from a psychological or social work perspective, have confirmed that the majority of surrogates are satisfied with their surrogacy experience, do not experience "bonding" with the child they birth, and feel positively about surrogacy even a decade after the birth. Assessing such studies from a social constructionist perspective reveals that the expectation that surrogates are somehow "different" from the majority of women and that they necessarily suffer as a consequence of relinquishing the child have little basis in reality and are instead based on cultural conventions and gendered assumptions. Many surrogates form close and intimate relationships with the intended parents. When the greatness of their efforts is acknowledged, they recall their surrogacy experience in the years to come as the most meaningful experience of their lives.
Even when the surrogate cases are successful in providing couples with children, there is the possibility of problems in the existing marriage surfacing. The thought of one of the partners in the relationship being unable to have children may lead to the need for counseling and medical support from a doctor or clinician.
In fiction
Films and other fiction depicting emotional struggles of
assisted reproductive technologyAssisted reproductive technology is a general term referring to methods used to achieve pregnancy by artificial or partially artificial means. It is reproductive technology used primarily in infertility treatments. Some forms of ART are also used in fertile couples for genetic reasons...
have had an upswing first in the latter part of the 2000s decade, although the techniques have been available for decades. Yet, the amount of people that can relate to it by personal experience in one way or another is ever growing, and the variety of trials and struggles is huge.
- In Robert A. Heinlein
Robert Anson Heinlein was an American science fiction writer. Often called the "dean of science fiction writers", he was one of the most influential and controversial authors of the genre. He set a standard for science and engineering plausibility and helped to raise the genre's standards of...
's 1961 science fictionScience fiction is a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less plausible content such as future settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, aliens, and paranormal abilities...
novel Stranger in a Strange LandStranger in a Strange Land is a 1961 science fiction novel by American author Robert A. Heinlein. It tells the story of Valentine Michael Smith, a human who comes to Earth in early adulthood after being born on the planet Mars and raised by Martians. The novel explores his interaction with—and...
, TV reporters exult that socialiteA socialite is a person who participates in social activities and spends a significant amount of time entertaining and being entertained at fashionable upper-class events....
Cynthia Duchess has decided to have the Perfect Baby, with the use of a sperm donor, an egg donorEgg donation is the process by which a woman provides one or several eggs for purposes of assisted reproduction or biomedical research. For assisted reproduction purposes, egg donation involves the process of in vitro fertilization as the eggs are fertilized in the laboratory. After the eggs...
, and a gestational carrier.
- In the Metal Gear
is a series of stealth video games created by Hideo Kojima and developed and published by Konami. The first game, Metal Gear, was released in 1987 for the MSX2. The player takes control of a special forces operative Solid Snake who is assigned to find the eponymous superweapon "Metal Gear", a...
video game series, the character EVA was the gestational surrogate mother who gave birth to Solid SnakeMetal Gear, initially released in 1987, introduces Solid Snake, the rookie recruit of the elite special-forces unit FOXHOUND. Snake is sent by team leader Big Boss into the rogue nation Outer Heaven to rescue his missing teammate Gray Fox and discover who or what the "METAL GEAR" mentioned is, and...
and Liquid Snake.
- The heroine of Heinlein's 1966 novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress
The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress is a 1966 science fiction novel by American writer Robert A. Heinlein, about a lunar colony's revolt against rule from Earth....
describes herself as a "professional host-mother".
- The 1986 novel To Have and To Hold
To Have and To Hold, is a novel by English author Deborah Moggach, first published in 1986 by Viking. According to The Times, "A very good novel indeed - contemporary in its subject, compassionate in its treatment of the four central characters"...
by Deborah MoggachDeborah Moggach is an English writer. She has written sixteen novels to date, including The Ex-Wives, Tulip Fever, and, most recently, These Foolish Things. She has adapted many of her novels as TV dramas and has also written several film scripts, including the BAFTA-nominated screenplay for Pride...
(and the TV series on which it is based) has surrogacy as its central theme.
- The character Phoebe Buffay
Phoebe Buffay-Hannigan is a fictional character on the U.S. television sitcom Friends , portrayed by Lisa Kudrow...
in hit US sitcom FriendsFriends is an American sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, which aired on NBC from September 22, 1994 to May 6, 2004. The series revolves around a group of friends in Manhattan. The series was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television...
was a gestational surrogate mother for her brother and his wife.
- The character Kira Nerys
Kira Nerys , played by Nana Visitor, is a main character in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.-Backstory:Per Bajoran custom, her family name, Kira, precedes her given name, Nerys. She has two brothers , and her parents' names are Kira Taban and Kira Meru...
in sci-fi show Star Trek: Deep Space NineStar Trek: Deep Space Nine is a science fiction television series set in the Star Trek universe...
acted as surrogate for the child of her colleague Miles O'Brien and his wife Keiko, after Keiko was injured and no longer able to carry. This was especially unusual as Kira and the O'Briens are not even the same species. Kira moved in with the O'Briens during the pregnancy. The O'Briens honoured Kira's wish for a traditional BajoranIn the Star Trek science-fiction franchise, the Bajorans are a humanoid extraterrestrial species native to the planet Bajor. They were first introduced in the 1991 episode "Ensign Ro" of Star Trek: The Next Generation and subsequently also featured in episodes of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and...
birth rather than a human one, and even named the child after Kira.
- The character Fertility in Chuck Palahniuk
Charles Michael "Chuck" Palahniuk is an American transgressional fiction novelist and freelance journalist. He is best known for the award-winning novel Fight Club, which was later made into a film directed by David Fincher and starring Brad Pitt, Edward Norton, and Helena Bonham Carter...
's novel Survivor works as a commercial surrogate, although she is infertile herself.
- In the 2008 film Baby Mama
Baby Mama is a 2008 comedy film from Universal Pictures written and directed by Michael McCullers and starring Tina Fey, Amy Poehler, Sigourney Weaver, Greg Kinnear, and Dax Shepard.-Plot:...
, starring Tina FeyElizabeth Stamatina "Tina" Fey is an American actress, comedian, writer and producer, known for her work on the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live , the NBC comedy series 30 Rock, and films such as Mean Girls and Baby Mama .Fey first broke into comedy as a featured player in the...
and Amy PoehlerAmy Meredith Poehler is an American comedian, actress and voice actress. She was a cast member on the NBC television entertainment show Saturday Night Live from 2001 to 2008. In 2004, she starred in the film Mean Girls with Tina Fey, with whom she worked again in Baby Mama in 2008. She is...
, Amy Poehler's character is a surrogate to Tina Fey's character.
- The Character Leah Patterson/Baker was surrogate to her friend Sally Fletcher and husband Flynn Saunders in the Australian soap opera Home and Away.
- In the film Chori Chori Chupke Chupke
Chori Chori Chupke Chupke is a 2001 Hindi movie directed by the successful pair Abbas-Mustan. It stars Salman Khan, Rani Mukerji and Preity Zinta...
Madhu becomes a surrogate mother for Raj Malhotra and his wife Priya after Priya suffers an injury that causes her to become infertile.
- The character Christina McKinney
Christina McKinney is a fictional character in the American comedy-drama series Ugly Betty. She is played by Ashley Jensen. Christina is based on Bertha Muñoz de González, only she isn't plus-sized, but both have a great ear for gossip....
in Ugly BettyUgly Betty is an American comedy-drama television series developed by Silvio Horta, which premiered on ABC on September 28, 2006, and ended on April 14, 2010. The series revolves around the character Betty Suarez and is based on Fernando Gaitán's Colombian telenovela soap opera Yo soy Betty, la fea...
acts as a surrogate for Wilhelmina SlaterWilhelmina Vivian Slater is a fictional character in the American dramedy series Ugly Betty. She is played by Vanessa Williams, who received a supporting actress award at the 2007 and 2008 NAACP Image Awards, a Best TV Villain award at the 2007 Teen Choice Awards and a supporting actress...
.
- The character Morgan Braithwaite
Morgan Braithwaite was a fictional character in the New Zealand soap opera Shortland Street. She was portrayed by Bonnie Soper since February 5, 2008. Morgan died on December 18 2009 after Kieran Mitchell accidentally ran her over with Rachel's car.-Character:Morgan Braithwaite was quiet, polite...
in New Zealand's Serial Drama, Shortland StreetShortland Street is a New Zealand prime-time soap opera, first broadcast on Television New Zealand's TV2 on 25 May 1992. It is the country's longest-running drama and soap opera, being broadcast continuously for over 4500 episodes and 19 years, and is one of the most watched television programs in...
, is an illegal surrogate for her infertile friends, Cindy and Trent.
- The character Ganondorf from The Legend of Zelda series is the surrogate child of Twinrova.
- The character Rachel Berry from Glee
Glee is an American musical comedy-drama television series that airs on Fox in the United States, and on GlobalTV in Canada. It focuses on the high school glee club New Directions competing on the show choir competition circuit, while its members deal with relationships, sexuality and social issues...
was born through a surrogate mother, played by Idina MenzelIdina Kim Menzel is an American actress, singer and songwriter. She is widely known for originating the roles of Maureen in Rent and Elphaba in Wicked.-Early life:...
, to two gay fathers.
- The character Eliza Makepeace in Kate Morton
Kate Morton is an Australian author, who has enjoyed domestic and international success with her novels The House at Riverton and The Forgotten Garden. Morton's third novel, The Distant Hours, was published in 2010.-Early life and education:Morton is the eldest of three sisters...
's novel The Forgotten GardenThe Forgotten Garden is a 2009 novel written by the Australian author Kate Morton. Morton has published four other works that include: The House at Riverton, The Shifting Fog, Miscellanea, and The Distant Hours.-Plot/review:...
is a surrogate mother for her cousin, Rose, who had her ovaries damaged by overlong exposure to X-rays in her childhood.
See also
- Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination, or AI, is the process by which sperm is placed into the reproductive tract of a female for the purpose of impregnating the female by using means other than sexual intercourse or natural insemination...
- Bioethics
Bioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy....
- Embryo transfer
Embryo transfer refers to a step in the process of assisted reproduction in which embryos are placed into the uterus of a female with the intent to establish a pregnancy...
- Fertility
Fertility is the natural capability of producing offsprings. As a measure, "fertility rate" is the number of children born per couple, person or population. Fertility differs from fecundity, which is defined as the potential for reproduction...
- Fertility tourism
Fertility tourism or reproductive tourism is the practice of traveling to another country for fertility treatments. It may be regarded as a form of medical tourism. The main reasons for fertility tourism are legal regulation of the sought procedure in the home country, or lower price...
- Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008
The Bill's discussion in Parliament did not permit time to debate whether it should extend abortion rights under the Abortion Act 1967 to also cover Northern Ireland...
- In-vitro fertilization
- Infertility
Infertility primarily refers to the biological inability of a person to contribute to conception. Infertility may also refer to the state of a woman who is unable to carry a pregnancy to full term...
- Reproduction
- Repugnant market
A repugnant market is a term used to describe an area of commerce that is considered by society to be outside of the range of market transactions and that bringing this area into the realm of a market would be inherently immoral or uncaring...
- Sperm donation
Sperm donation is the provision by a man, , of his sperm, with the intention that it be used to impregnate a woman who is not usually the man's sexual partner, in order to produce a child....
- Third party reproduction
Third party reproduction refers to a process where another person provides sperm or eggs or where another woman provides her uterus so that a woman can have a child. Thus the reproductive process goes beyond the traditional father-mother model. However, the third party's involvement is limited to...
External links