Positive Adult Development
Encyclopedia
Positive Adult Development is one of the four major forms of adult developmental study that can be identified. The other three forms are directionless change, stasis, and decline. Positive adult developmental processes are divided into at least six areas of study: hierarchical complexity
(orders, stages), knowledge
, experience
, expertise, wisdom
, and spirituality
.
The achievement of complete development at the end of adolescence was suggested by Freud, Piaget
, and Binet
among others. Research in Positive Adult Development questions not only that development ceases after adolescence, but also the notion of decline after late adolescence postulated by many gerontologists. Positive development does occur during adulthood. Recent studies indicate that such development is useful in predicting things such as an individual's health, life satisfaction, and degree of contribution to the society.
. For example, Erik Erikson
(1978) proposed a number of adult periods. Daniel Levinson
(1978) had described a number of "seasons of life." Abraham Maslow
proposed an adult needs hierarchy. Jean Piaget
(Vuyk, 1980) came to agree that there were adult postformal
stages beyond the stage of formal operations; his earlier theory had located an endpoint to the development of cognitive structures in the adolescent's
acquisition of formal operations. John L. Horn (1970, 1979) found that crystallized intelligence, represented by such things as vocabulary size, increased in adulthood. Lawrence Kohlberg
(1984) found that in early adulthood, some people come to think of moral, ethical and societal issues in multivarate terms (Systematic stage 11, the first postformal stage). They use multiple relations. During middle adulthood some people become principled reasoners about moral issues; for instance, they used abstract principles to relate systems of rights to systems of duties (Metasystematic stage 12, the second postformal stage). Likewise, Cheryl Armon (1984) found that by middle adulthood, some people could reason about interpersonal relationships at an order of complexity similar to that described by Lawrence Kohlberg.
, Richards, and Armon (1984), as well as in Alexander and Langer
(1990). Four postformal
adult stages of development beyond the formal stage have been discovered in a wide variety of domains. The total number of stages across the life span now stands at 15. Periods and Seasons have been described.
There were a number of edited books in the period around 1990. These include edited books (Commons, Sinnott, Richards, & Armon, 1989 and Commons, Armon, Kohlberg, Richards, Grotzer, & Sinnott, 1990).
of Kohlberg
, emotional development of Erik Erikson
, etc. One measurement that can be used in any domain of activity is the Model of Hierarchical Complexity
.
Model of hierarchical complexity
The model of hierarchical complexity is a framework for scoring how complex a behavior is. It quantifies the order of hierarchical complexity of a task based on mathematical principles of how the information is organized and of information science...
(orders, stages), knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject...
, experience
Experience
Experience as a general concept comprises knowledge of or skill in or observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or exposure to that thing or event....
, expertise, wisdom
Wisdom
Wisdom is a deep understanding and realization of people, things, events or situations, resulting in the ability to apply perceptions, judgements and actions in keeping with this understanding. It often requires control of one's emotional reactions so that universal principles, reason and...
, and spirituality
Spirituality
Spirituality can refer to an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality; an inner path enabling a person to discover the essence of his/her being; or the “deepest values and meanings by which people live.” Spiritual practices, including meditation, prayer and contemplation, are intended to develop...
.
The achievement of complete development at the end of adolescence was suggested by Freud, Piaget
Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget was a French-speaking Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology"....
, and Binet
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet was a French psychologist who was the inventor of the first usable intelligence test, known at that time as the Binet test and today referred to as the IQ test. His principal goal was to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum...
among others. Research in Positive Adult Development questions not only that development ceases after adolescence, but also the notion of decline after late adolescence postulated by many gerontologists. Positive development does occur during adulthood. Recent studies indicate that such development is useful in predicting things such as an individual's health, life satisfaction, and degree of contribution to the society.
Origins of the field
This field stems originally from several threads of work within PsychologyPsychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
. For example, Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson was a Danish-German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T...
(1978) proposed a number of adult periods. Daniel Levinson
Daniel Levinson
Daniel J. Levinson , a psychologist, was one of the founders of the field of Positive Adult Development.-Early life and education:...
(1978) had described a number of "seasons of life." Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Harold Maslow was an American professor of psychology at Brandeis University, Brooklyn College, New School for Social Research and Columbia University who created Maslow's hierarchy of needs...
proposed an adult needs hierarchy. Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget was a French-speaking Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology"....
(Vuyk, 1980) came to agree that there were adult postformal
Model of hierarchical complexity
The model of hierarchical complexity is a framework for scoring how complex a behavior is. It quantifies the order of hierarchical complexity of a task based on mathematical principles of how the information is organized and of information science...
stages beyond the stage of formal operations; his earlier theory had located an endpoint to the development of cognitive structures in the adolescent's
Adolescence
Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and mental human development generally occurring between puberty and legal adulthood , but largely characterized as beginning and ending with the teenage stage...
acquisition of formal operations. John L. Horn (1970, 1979) found that crystallized intelligence, represented by such things as vocabulary size, increased in adulthood. Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University. Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of moral development...
(1984) found that in early adulthood, some people come to think of moral, ethical and societal issues in multivarate terms (Systematic stage 11, the first postformal stage). They use multiple relations. During middle adulthood some people become principled reasoners about moral issues; for instance, they used abstract principles to relate systems of rights to systems of duties (Metasystematic stage 12, the second postformal stage). Likewise, Cheryl Armon (1984) found that by middle adulthood, some people could reason about interpersonal relationships at an order of complexity similar to that described by Lawrence Kohlberg.
Intermediate Work
By 1978, research on positive adult development was growing at an extraordinary rate, and expanding upon these early threads in a number of directions. Summaries of some of that initial positive adult development research can be found in CommonsMichael Commons
Michael Lamport Commons is a theoretical behavioral scientist and a complex systems scientist. He developed the Model of Hierarchical Complexity...
, Richards, and Armon (1984), as well as in Alexander and Langer
Ellen Langer
Ellen Jane Langer is professor of psychology at Harvard University who has studied the illusion of control, decision making, aging and mindfulness theory.-Biography:...
(1990). Four postformal
Model of hierarchical complexity
The model of hierarchical complexity is a framework for scoring how complex a behavior is. It quantifies the order of hierarchical complexity of a task based on mathematical principles of how the information is organized and of information science...
adult stages of development beyond the formal stage have been discovered in a wide variety of domains. The total number of stages across the life span now stands at 15. Periods and Seasons have been described.
There were a number of edited books in the period around 1990. These include edited books (Commons, Sinnott, Richards, & Armon, 1989 and Commons, Armon, Kohlberg, Richards, Grotzer, & Sinnott, 1990).
Recent Work
Now that such substantive bodies of knowledge are accruing about positive adult development (Demick & Andreoletti, 2002; Hoare, 2006), some researchers have turned to investigating methods to foster such development, rather than just describe it and/or measure it. For educators of adults in formal settings, this has been on the educational agenda in various forms already. More recently, efforts branched out to testing hypotheses about fostering positive adult development. These methods are used in organizational and educational setting. Some use developmentally-designed, structured public discourse to address complex public issues (Ross, 2007).Measurements in Positive Adult Development
Researchers have developed a number of instruments and methods to measure adult development. Most of these focus on one aspect, e.g., moral developmentMoral Development
Moral development focuses on the emergence, change, and understanding of morality from infancy to adulthood. In the field of moral development, morality is defined as principles for how individuals ought to treat one another, with respect to justice, others’ welfare, and rights...
of Kohlberg
Kohlberg
- Municipalities :Germany* Kohlberg, Baden-Württemberg, in the district of Esslingen* Kohlberg, Bavaria in the district of Neustadt * Kohlberg , in Saxony...
, emotional development of Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson was a Danish-German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T...
, etc. One measurement that can be used in any domain of activity is the Model of Hierarchical Complexity
Model of hierarchical complexity
The model of hierarchical complexity is a framework for scoring how complex a behavior is. It quantifies the order of hierarchical complexity of a task based on mathematical principles of how the information is organized and of information science...
.