Operation Wellhit
Encyclopedia
Operation Wellhit was the World War II
operation by the 3rd Canadian Division
(Canadian 1st Army) to take the fortified port of Boulogne
in northern France. At first, the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade had hoped to take Boulogne as part of its advance up the coast. The defences, however, brought them to a halt five miles from the city.
Although the city's defences were incomplete, those that did exist were sufficiently formidable to justify massive bombardments before and during the assault and extensive use of specialised armour
from the 79th Armoured Division
. Despite the lower than expected level of material damage by the bombardments, the high degree of coordination between artillery, air force, armour and infantry greatly aided the success of the operation. The operation took from 17 to 22 September, 1944.
. The idea was that these would be heavily fortified towns manned by troops committed to fight to the end, thus denying the allies the use of the facilities and committing allied troops at least to a containment role. In practice, Boulogne's landward defences were incomplete, many of its garrison troops were second-rate and demoralised by their isolation and the obvious inability of the Wehrmacht
to rescue or support them. In the event, none of the stongpoints fought to the end, preferring to surrender when confronted by powerful forces. Their commander, Ferdinand Heim
's own appreciation of the situation was realistic.
The city and port of Boulogne is sited at the mouth of the River Liane, which flows north, north westwards into the sea, which is to the north-west of the centre. The Liane splits the urban area, with the western side forming a high (250 feet high) peninsular between the river and the coast. High ground surrounds the city, with prominent heights, which had been fortified over the centuries. The most significant fortifications and artillery batteries were at La Tresorerie (inland from Wimereux
and three miles north of the centre), at Mont Lambert (two miles east of the city centre), Herquelingue (2½ miles south-east of the city) and various fortifications south of Outreau on the "peninsular"
Heim had been appointed as commander only a few weeks before Boulogne became isolated by the allies' advance through northern France. The town's fixed defences were strong but little had been done on the landward side apart from some hastily built field defences. He was ordered to create a substantial defensive zone, but he had neither the specialist nor the resources to achieve this; in his own words, "I merely put a big red circle on my map to show that the demolitions had been theoretically carried out."
to the front, which was seriously constrained by the lack of convenient ports. Boulogne could not, therefore, merely be contained until a general surrender of German forces; it had to be won and the port had to be made available. The vulnerability of Boulogne was not appreciated by Harry Crerar
(the commander of the Canadian Army), who judged that a full set-piece assault would be necessary, supported by heavy bombardments from land, air and sea and with specialised armour
. He also wished to be certain of success, so as to maintain the momentum following the fall of Le Havre and maintain psychological pressure upon the remaining fortresses at Calais
, Dunkirk and elsewhere.
Preparations for Wellhit were constrained by the difficulties of moving artillery ammunition from Normandy and Dieppe
and by the need to complete operations at Le Havre
before necessary armour and artillery could become available.
The Canadians gained useful intelligence on the German defences through information from evacuated civilians (8,000 were expelled by the occupiers) and with the help of the local French Resistance
.
In the days preceding the attack, attempts were made, by air and artillery bombardment, to weaken the German defences. There was also a large bombardment in the final ninety minutes, employing several hundred heavy and medium bombers and a "creeping barrage". This attempt at the destruction of defences was surprisingly ineffective; indeed, Heim said that "amongst personnel, casualties were almost negligible" and that permanent installations suffered little damage. In addition, bomb craters proved to be a real hindrance to armoured vehicles supporting the infantry attacks. Canadian assessments, however, noted that, within the bombardment area, progress was significantly quicker than elsewhere, due to the impact upon the defenders.
of the 8th Brigade would go in here earlier than the main attack. In the main attack, two infantry brigades would advance parallel to the main road from La Capelle to the east; the 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade
(comprising Le Régiment de la Chaudière
and Queen's Own Rifles of Canada) would be north of the road while the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade (Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders and North Nova Scotia Highlanders) would be south of it.
Once the main urban area had been captured, 8th Brigade would clear the area around Wimille
, Wimereux
and Fort de la Crèche and 9th Brigade would clear the Outreau
peninsular.
s (tanks converted into personnel carriers). The 8th Brigade captured Rupembert and its radar
installation, intact, and consolidated in Marlborough (one mile north-west of the city centre).
Mont Lambert was appreciated by both sides as the defensive key to Boulogne. The 9th Brigade's early advance had been rapid but, once its defenders had recovered from the bombardments, they gave an effective defence with artillery and machine guns. Once paths had been cleared through minefields, however, support was available from AVRE
s and Churchill Crocodile
flame-throwing tanks from the 79th Armoured Division
and the tanks of the Fort Garry Horse. Much of Mont Lambert was in Canadian control by nightfall.
La Tresorerie proved more difficult than expected - the attack was impeded in a minefield - but its artillery did not interfere with the main attacks.
The 9th Brigade's North Nova Scotias finally subdued Mont Lambert by 11am, the loss of which General Heim believed "would make defence of the port impossible". The Glengarries, supported by AVREs, pushed beyond St Martin to the "upper town" or "citadel". This area occupies a dominant position above the port and was (and still is) entirely surrounded by thick medieval masonry walls with a dry ditch in places. As the Canadians prepared to assault with the AVREs, a French civilian disclosed a "secret passage" and a platoon was taken beneath the walls. At the same time, tank fire and demolition of the gates persuaded the German defenders to surrender.
A company of North Nova Scotias, as ever supported by specialised armour, broke through to the River Liane in the city centre and the reserve battalion
, the Highland Light Infantry of Canada
(HLI), moved through the Glengarries to the river. The bridges had been partially destroyed, preventing an immediate advance onto the western side. Later, the HLI stormed across, under the protection of heavy fire from all available weapons. Improvised repairs were made on one bridge overnight and by daylight, light transport was across the river.
The Divisional reserves, the Cameron Highlanders of Ottawa successfully completed their assault on Herquelingue heights, south-east of the city, east of the river, overnight on the 18th-19th September. However, unbeknown to them, a large German force had remained in tunnels underneath the fortifications and had to be subdued separately on the 20th after making a nuisance of themselves (dubbed the "bargain basement incident").
In the northern area, 8th Brigade's North Shore Regiment moved against Wimille
and the coastal settlement at Wimereux
. The taking of the fortress of Fort de la Crèche was the responsibility of Queen's Own Rifles and the Chaudière. Fort de la Crèche was heavily defended and manned by some of the best troops available to General Hein. In order to protect Canadian activities elsewhere, it was shrouded by a smoke screen.
In the northern area, Wimille was attacked by 8th Brigade and captured the following morning, against stiff opposition.
, three miles north of Boulogne, restricting the use of artillery to minimise civilian casualties. Actions against Fort de la Crèche got under way with reconnaissance patrols by the Queen's Own Rifles and the Chaudière. These met with strong resistance, but an attack by bombers from No 2 Group RAF subdued the defenders and reduced their will to fight.
The last major resistance was at the two fortresses at Le Portel on the Outreau peninsular. An ultimatum calling for prompt surrender was delivered by loud speakers and the northern fort's garrison marched out to surrender to the HLI shortly before the ultimatum's deadline expired. This left the southern fort, where General Heim was quartered and which continued firing. Armour, including flame-throwers, was brought forward and the German garrison destroyed their guns; a cease-fire came into force at 4:17pm. At 4:30pm, Heim was reported as captured and en route to brigade headquarters.
A solitary gun on the harbour breakwater continued firing until Heim ordered it to stop.
and the German heavy batteries at Cap Gris Nez
. Instead, an Army Port Repair and Construction Group was tasked with the clearance work. On 10 October, a "Pluto
" oil pipeline was laid from Dungeness, in England, but the harbour was not open to shipping until 14 October, by which time Antwerp had become available.
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
operation by the 3rd Canadian Division
3rd Canadian Division
The 3rd Canadian Division was a formation of the Canadian Corps during the First World War.The 3rd Canadian Division was formed in France in December 1915 under the command of Major-General M.S. Mercer. Its members served in both France and Flanders until Armistice Day...
(Canadian 1st Army) to take the fortified port of Boulogne
Boulogne-sur-Mer
-Road:* Metropolitan bus services are operated by the TCRB* Coach services to Calais and Dunkerque* A16 motorway-Rail:* The main railway station is Gare de Boulogne-Ville and located in the south of the city....
in northern France. At first, the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade had hoped to take Boulogne as part of its advance up the coast. The defences, however, brought them to a halt five miles from the city.
Although the city's defences were incomplete, those that did exist were sufficiently formidable to justify massive bombardments before and during the assault and extensive use of specialised armour
Hobart's Funnies
Hobart's Funnies were a number of unusually modified tanks operated during World War II by the United Kingdom's 79th Armoured Division or by specialists from the Royal Engineers. They were designed in light of problems that more standard tanks experienced during the Dieppe Raid, so that the new...
from the 79th Armoured Division
79th Armoured Division
The 79th Armoured Division was a specialist British Army armoured formation created as part of the preparations for the Normandy invasion of 6 June 1944...
. Despite the lower than expected level of material damage by the bombardments, the high degree of coordination between artillery, air force, armour and infantry greatly aided the success of the operation. The operation took from 17 to 22 September, 1944.
"Fortress" Boulogne
Boulogne was one of several Channel ports to be designated as a "fortress" by Adolf HitlerAdolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
. The idea was that these would be heavily fortified towns manned by troops committed to fight to the end, thus denying the allies the use of the facilities and committing allied troops at least to a containment role. In practice, Boulogne's landward defences were incomplete, many of its garrison troops were second-rate and demoralised by their isolation and the obvious inability of the Wehrmacht
Wehrmacht
The Wehrmacht – from , to defend and , the might/power) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the Heer , the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe .-Origin and use of the term:...
to rescue or support them. In the event, none of the stongpoints fought to the end, preferring to surrender when confronted by powerful forces. Their commander, Ferdinand Heim
Ferdinand Heim
Ferdinand Heim was a World War II German general.-War service:Heim served as a junior artillery officer in the XIII Corps during the whole of the First World War After 1918 he remained in the much smaller army as a career officer, reaching the rank of Oberst in June 1939, just before the start of...
's own appreciation of the situation was realistic.
The city and port of Boulogne is sited at the mouth of the River Liane, which flows north, north westwards into the sea, which is to the north-west of the centre. The Liane splits the urban area, with the western side forming a high (250 feet high) peninsular between the river and the coast. High ground surrounds the city, with prominent heights, which had been fortified over the centuries. The most significant fortifications and artillery batteries were at La Tresorerie (inland from Wimereux
Wimereux
Wimereux is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France.-Geography:Wimereux is a coastal town situated some north of Boulogne, at the junction of the D233 and the D940 roads, on the banks of the river Wimereux. The river Slack forms the northern boundary of...
and three miles north of the centre), at Mont Lambert (two miles east of the city centre), Herquelingue (2½ miles south-east of the city) and various fortifications south of Outreau on the "peninsular"
Heim had been appointed as commander only a few weeks before Boulogne became isolated by the allies' advance through northern France. The town's fixed defences were strong but little had been done on the landward side apart from some hastily built field defences. He was ordered to create a substantial defensive zone, but he had neither the specialist nor the resources to achieve this; in his own words, "I merely put a big red circle on my map to show that the demolitions had been theoretically carried out."
Preparations
The allied advance into Germany depended upon supplies of materielMateriel
Materiel is a term used in English to refer to the equipment and supplies in military and commercial supply chain management....
to the front, which was seriously constrained by the lack of convenient ports. Boulogne could not, therefore, merely be contained until a general surrender of German forces; it had to be won and the port had to be made available. The vulnerability of Boulogne was not appreciated by Harry Crerar
Harry Crerar
Henry Duncan Graham "Harry" Crerar CH, CB, DSO, KStJ, CD, PC was a Canadian general and the country's "leading field commander" in World War II.-Early years:...
(the commander of the Canadian Army), who judged that a full set-piece assault would be necessary, supported by heavy bombardments from land, air and sea and with specialised armour
Hobart's Funnies
Hobart's Funnies were a number of unusually modified tanks operated during World War II by the United Kingdom's 79th Armoured Division or by specialists from the Royal Engineers. They were designed in light of problems that more standard tanks experienced during the Dieppe Raid, so that the new...
. He also wished to be certain of success, so as to maintain the momentum following the fall of Le Havre and maintain psychological pressure upon the remaining fortresses at Calais
Calais
Calais is a town in Northern France in the department of Pas-de-Calais, of which it is a sub-prefecture. Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas-de-Calais, the department's capital is its third-largest city of Arras....
, Dunkirk and elsewhere.
Preparations for Wellhit were constrained by the difficulties of moving artillery ammunition from Normandy and Dieppe
Dieppe, Seine-Maritime
Dieppe is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in France. In 1999, the population of the whole Dieppe urban area was 81,419.A port on the English Channel, famous for its scallops, and with a regular ferry service from the Gare Maritime to Newhaven in England, Dieppe also has a popular pebbled...
and by the need to complete operations at Le Havre
Operation Astonia
Operation Astonia was a World War II battle fought from 10 September 1944 to 12 September 1944.The Allied objective of the operation was the capture of the German-held Channel port of Le Havre,France,coveted by the Allies to improve their supply system.The Allies hoped to find the port intact and...
before necessary armour and artillery could become available.
The Canadians gained useful intelligence on the German defences through information from evacuated civilians (8,000 were expelled by the occupiers) and with the help of the local French Resistance
French Resistance
The French Resistance is the name used to denote the collection of French resistance movements that fought against the Nazi German occupation of France and against the collaborationist Vichy régime during World War II...
.
In the days preceding the attack, attempts were made, by air and artillery bombardment, to weaken the German defences. There was also a large bombardment in the final ninety minutes, employing several hundred heavy and medium bombers and a "creeping barrage". This attempt at the destruction of defences was surprisingly ineffective; indeed, Heim said that "amongst personnel, casualties were almost negligible" and that permanent installations suffered little damage. In addition, bomb craters proved to be a real hindrance to armoured vehicles supporting the infantry attacks. Canadian assessments, however, noted that, within the bombardment area, progress was significantly quicker than elsewhere, due to the impact upon the defenders.
The assault
The outline of the attack was that the northern and southern defences would be contained or diverted while the main attack would drive into Boulogne from the east. Since German artillery at La Tresorerie posed a threat to the main assault, an attack by North Shore RegimentNorth Shore Regiment
The North Shore Regiment was a Canadian army unit that was raised in New Brunswick.This unit consisted primarily of soldiers from the northern part of th province of New Brunswick....
of the 8th Brigade would go in here earlier than the main attack. In the main attack, two infantry brigades would advance parallel to the main road from La Capelle to the east; the 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade
8th Canadian Infantry Brigade
The 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade was an infantry formation of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division during World War II-World War II:After training in Britain, the 8th Brigade formed part of the assault forces on D-Day, at Juno Beach...
(comprising Le Régiment de la Chaudière
Le Régiment de la Chaudière
The Régiment de la Chaudière is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Forces.-Insignia:The regimental insignia consists of two crossed machine guns, surmounted by a beaver supporting a fleur-de-lys...
and Queen's Own Rifles of Canada) would be north of the road while the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade (Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders and North Nova Scotia Highlanders) would be south of it.
Once the main urban area had been captured, 8th Brigade would clear the area around Wimille
Wimille
Wimille is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France.-Geography:Wimille is a farming and light industrial town situated some north of Boulogne, at the junction of the D233 and the D237 roads, on the banks of the river Wimereux. The river Slack forms the...
, Wimereux
Wimereux
Wimereux is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France.-Geography:Wimereux is a coastal town situated some north of Boulogne, at the junction of the D233 and the D940 roads, on the banks of the river Wimereux. The river Slack forms the northern boundary of...
and Fort de la Crèche and 9th Brigade would clear the Outreau
Outreau
Outreau is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France.-Geography:Outreau is a large industrial town and port situated adjacent to, and west of Boulogne, on the N1, N142 and D19 roads...
peninsular.
Day 1 - 17 September
The main attacks went well. In both attacks, infantry had been transported in KangarooKangaroo (armoured personnel carrier)
A Kangaroo was a World War II Commonwealth or British armoured personnel carrier , created by conversion of a tank chassis. Created as an expedient measure by the Canadian Army, the Kangaroos were so successful that they were soon being used by British forces as well...
s (tanks converted into personnel carriers). The 8th Brigade captured Rupembert and its radar
Radar
Radar is an object-detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The radar dish or antenna transmits pulses of radio...
installation, intact, and consolidated in Marlborough (one mile north-west of the city centre).
Mont Lambert was appreciated by both sides as the defensive key to Boulogne. The 9th Brigade's early advance had been rapid but, once its defenders had recovered from the bombardments, they gave an effective defence with artillery and machine guns. Once paths had been cleared through minefields, however, support was available from AVRE
Avre
Avre may refer to:*Avre , a river in northwestern France, tributary of the Eure*Avre , a river in northern France, tributary of the Somme*Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers, a military vehicle of the British Army...
s and Churchill Crocodile
Churchill Crocodile
The Churchill Crocodile was a British flame-throwing tank of late Second World War. It was a variant of the Tank, Infantry, Mk VI Churchill Mark VII, although the Churchill Mark IV was initially chosen to be the base vehicle....
flame-throwing tanks from the 79th Armoured Division
79th Armoured Division
The 79th Armoured Division was a specialist British Army armoured formation created as part of the preparations for the Normandy invasion of 6 June 1944...
and the tanks of the Fort Garry Horse. Much of Mont Lambert was in Canadian control by nightfall.
La Tresorerie proved more difficult than expected - the attack was impeded in a minefield - but its artillery did not interfere with the main attacks.
Day 2 - 18 September
The guns at La Tresorerie were captured by the North Shore Regiment and the other two regiments in the 8th Brigade made progress in the suburbs and hills to the north of the city.The 9th Brigade's North Nova Scotias finally subdued Mont Lambert by 11am, the loss of which General Heim believed "would make defence of the port impossible". The Glengarries, supported by AVREs, pushed beyond St Martin to the "upper town" or "citadel". This area occupies a dominant position above the port and was (and still is) entirely surrounded by thick medieval masonry walls with a dry ditch in places. As the Canadians prepared to assault with the AVREs, a French civilian disclosed a "secret passage" and a platoon was taken beneath the walls. At the same time, tank fire and demolition of the gates persuaded the German defenders to surrender.
A company of North Nova Scotias, as ever supported by specialised armour, broke through to the River Liane in the city centre and the reserve battalion
Battalion
A battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...
, the Highland Light Infantry of Canada
Highland Light Infantry of Canada
The Highland Light Infantry of Canada was an infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. Founded in 1886 as the 29th Waterloo Battalion of Infantry it went through several name changes including, in 1900, the 29th Waterloo Regiment and in 1915, the 29th Regiment . It acquired its present title in 1920...
(HLI), moved through the Glengarries to the river. The bridges had been partially destroyed, preventing an immediate advance onto the western side. Later, the HLI stormed across, under the protection of heavy fire from all available weapons. Improvised repairs were made on one bridge overnight and by daylight, light transport was across the river.
Day 3 - 19 September
Once over the Liane, 9th Brigade moved south along the river's west bank and the Glengarries took the suburb of Outreau. The 9th Brigade was under heavy fire from a fortified position (code named Buttercup) on top of the peninsular between the river and the sea. Close coordination of the infantry advance and a creeping barrage enabled the strongpoint to be taken.The Divisional reserves, the Cameron Highlanders of Ottawa successfully completed their assault on Herquelingue heights, south-east of the city, east of the river, overnight on the 18th-19th September. However, unbeknown to them, a large German force had remained in tunnels underneath the fortifications and had to be subdued separately on the 20th after making a nuisance of themselves (dubbed the "bargain basement incident").
In the northern area, 8th Brigade's North Shore Regiment moved against Wimille
Wimille
Wimille is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France.-Geography:Wimille is a farming and light industrial town situated some north of Boulogne, at the junction of the D233 and the D237 roads, on the banks of the river Wimereux. The river Slack forms the...
and the coastal settlement at Wimereux
Wimereux
Wimereux is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France.-Geography:Wimereux is a coastal town situated some north of Boulogne, at the junction of the D233 and the D940 roads, on the banks of the river Wimereux. The river Slack forms the northern boundary of...
. The taking of the fortress of Fort de la Crèche was the responsibility of Queen's Own Rifles and the Chaudière. Fort de la Crèche was heavily defended and manned by some of the best troops available to General Hein. In order to protect Canadian activities elsewhere, it was shrouded by a smoke screen.
Day 4 - 20 September
The Nova Scotias had continued their advance along the river's west bank to capture St Etienne, opposite Herquelingue. They then crossed the peninsular, and moved northwards to deal with the defended coastal areas of Nocquet, Ningles and Le Portel, while the Camerons crossed the Liane and covered the southern flank.In the northern area, Wimille was attacked by 8th Brigade and captured the following morning, against stiff opposition.
Day 5 - 21 September
The North Shore Regiment continued the actions north of Boulogne with an attack on the coastal town of WimereuxWimereux
Wimereux is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France.-Geography:Wimereux is a coastal town situated some north of Boulogne, at the junction of the D233 and the D940 roads, on the banks of the river Wimereux. The river Slack forms the northern boundary of...
, three miles north of Boulogne, restricting the use of artillery to minimise civilian casualties. Actions against Fort de la Crèche got under way with reconnaissance patrols by the Queen's Own Rifles and the Chaudière. These met with strong resistance, but an attack by bombers from No 2 Group RAF subdued the defenders and reduced their will to fight.
Day 6 - 22 September
The capture of Wimereux was completed, to the relief of its population. The now disheartened garrison of Fort de la Crèche surrendered to the Queen's Own Rifles after a brief action and bombardment before 8am . The northern environs of Boulogne were now held by the Canadians.The last major resistance was at the two fortresses at Le Portel on the Outreau peninsular. An ultimatum calling for prompt surrender was delivered by loud speakers and the northern fort's garrison marched out to surrender to the HLI shortly before the ultimatum's deadline expired. This left the southern fort, where General Heim was quartered and which continued firing. Armour, including flame-throwers, was brought forward and the German garrison destroyed their guns; a cease-fire came into force at 4:17pm. At 4:30pm, Heim was reported as captured and en route to brigade headquarters.
A solitary gun on the harbour breakwater continued firing until Heim ordered it to stop.
Aftermath
Once firing had stopped, civilian residents returned to recover their homes and the city rapidly returned to life. Canadian Civil Aid units provided soup kitchens, water and medical aid to the civilians. The port of Boulogne had to be cleared of wreckage, sunken ships and mines before it could be usable. This was not the Canadian's job; the 8th and 9th Brigades were redeployed to CalaisCalais
Calais is a town in Northern France in the department of Pas-de-Calais, of which it is a sub-prefecture. Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas-de-Calais, the department's capital is its third-largest city of Arras....
and the German heavy batteries at Cap Gris Nez
Cap Gris Nez
Cap Gris Nez is a cape on the Côte d'Opale in the Pas-de-Calais département in northern France....
. Instead, an Army Port Repair and Construction Group was tasked with the clearance work. On 10 October, a "Pluto
Operation Pluto
Operation Pluto was a World War II operation by British scientists, oil companies and armed forces to construct undersea oil pipelines under the English Channel between England and France. The scheme was developed by Arthur Hartley, chief engineer with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company...
" oil pipeline was laid from Dungeness, in England, but the harbour was not open to shipping until 14 October, by which time Antwerp had become available.