The term
Mishnaic Hebrew refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the
TalmudThe Talmud is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history. It is a central text of mainstream Judaism....
, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects can be further sub-divided into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called
TannaiticThe Tannaim were the Rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 70-200 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also referred to as the Mishnaic period, lasted about 130 years...
Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or
MishnaicThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah" and the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
Hebrew I), which was a
spoken languageSpoken language is a form of communication in which words derived from a large vocabulary together with a diverse variety of names are uttered through or with the mouth. All words are made up from a limited set of vowels and consonants. The spoken words they make are stringed into syntactically...
, and
AmoraAmora , were renowned Jewish scholars who "said" or "told over" the teachings of the Oral law, from about 200 to 500 CE in Babylonia and the Land of Israel. Their legal discussions and debates were eventually codified in the Gemara...
ic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a
literary languageA literary language is a register of a language that is used in literary writing. This may also include liturgical writing. The difference between literary and non-literary forms is more marked in some languages than in others...
.
The
Mishnaic Hebrew language or
Early Rabbinic Hebrew language is one direct ancient descendant of Biblical Hebrew as preserved by the
JewsJudaism is a set of beliefs and practices originating in the Hebrew Bible , as later further explored and explained in the Talmud and other texts...
after the Babylonian captivity, and definitively recorded by Jewish sages in writing the
MishnahThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah" and the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
and other contemporary documents.
The term
Mishnaic Hebrew refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the
TalmudThe Talmud is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history. It is a central text of mainstream Judaism....
, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects can be further sub-divided into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called
TannaiticThe Tannaim were the Rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 70-200 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also referred to as the Mishnaic period, lasted about 130 years...
Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or
MishnaicThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah" and the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
Hebrew I), which was a
spoken languageSpoken language is a form of communication in which words derived from a large vocabulary together with a diverse variety of names are uttered through or with the mouth. All words are made up from a limited set of vowels and consonants. The spoken words they make are stringed into syntactically...
, and
AmoraAmora , were renowned Jewish scholars who "said" or "told over" the teachings of the Oral law, from about 200 to 500 CE in Babylonia and the Land of Israel. Their legal discussions and debates were eventually codified in the Gemara...
ic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a
literary languageA literary language is a register of a language that is used in literary writing. This may also include liturgical writing. The difference between literary and non-literary forms is more marked in some languages than in others...
.
The
Mishnaic Hebrew language or
Early Rabbinic Hebrew language is one direct ancient descendant of Biblical Hebrew as preserved by the
JewsJudaism is a set of beliefs and practices originating in the Hebrew Bible , as later further explored and explained in the Talmud and other texts...
after the Babylonian captivity, and definitively recorded by Jewish sages in writing the
MishnahThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah" and the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
and other contemporary documents. It was not used by the
SamaritanThe Samaritans are an ethnoreligious group of the Levant. Religiously, they are the adherents to Samaritanism, a parallel but separate religion to Judaism or any of its historical forms...
s, who preserved their own dialect,
Samaritan HebrewThe Samaritan Hebrew language is a descendant of Biblical Hebrew as pronounced and written by the Samaritans. It is used in the reading tradition of the Samaritan Pentateuch.-Writing:...
.
A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the
halachicMidrash halakha was the ancient Judaic rabbinic method of Torah study that expounded upon the traditionally received 613 Mitzvot by identifying their sources in the Tanakh , and by interpreting these passages as proofs of the laws' authenticity. Midrash more generally also refers to the...
MidrashMidrash is a homiletic method of biblical exegesis. The term also refers to the whole compilation of homiletic teachings on the Bible....
im (
SifraSifra is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. It is frequently quoted in the Talmud, and the study of it followed that of the Mishnah, as appears from Tanḥuma, quoted in Or Zarua, i. 7b. Like Leviticus itself, the midrash is occasionally called "Torat Kohanim" , and in two passages also "Sifra debe...
,
SifreSifre refers to either of two works of Midrash halakhah, or classical Jewish legal Biblical exegesis, based on the biblical books of Bamidbar and Devarim .- The Talmudic-Era Sifre :The title "Sifre debe Rab" is used by R. Hananeel on Sheb...
, Mechilta etc.) and the expanded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the
ToseftaThe Tosefta is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah.-Overview:In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah . The Mishnah is the basic compilation of the Oral law of Judaism; it was compiled around 200 CE...
. The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere; the generic term for these passages is
BaraitotBaraita designates a tradition in the Jewish oral law not incorporated in the Mishnah. "Baraita" thus refers to teachings "outside" of the six orders of the Mishnah...
. The dialect of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew.
Historical occurrence
This dialect is primarily found from the 1st to the 4th century AD, corresponding to the Roman Period after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the bulk of the
MishnahThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah" and the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
and
ToseftaThe Tosefta is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah.-Overview:In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah . The Mishnah is the basic compilation of the Oral law of Judaism; it was compiled around 200 CE...
within the
TalmudThe Talmud is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history. It is a central text of mainstream Judaism....
and by the Dead Sea Scrolls, notably the Bar Kokhba Letters and the
Copper ScrollThe Copper Scroll is one of the Dead Sea Scrolls found in Cave 3 near Khirbet Qumran, but differs significantly from the others. Whereas the other scrolls are written on parchment or papyrus, this scroll is written on metal: copper mixed with about 1% tin...
. Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew.
The earlier section of the Talmud is the
MishnahThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah" and the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
that was published around 200
CECommon Era, abbreviated as CE, is a designation for the calendar system most commonly used world-wide for numbering the year part of the date...
and was written in the earlier Mishnaic dialect. The dialect is also found in certain
Dead Sea ScrollsThe Dead Sea scrolls consist of about 900 documents, including texts from the Hebrew Bible, discovered between 1947 and 1956 in eleven caves in and around the Qumran Wadi near the ruins of the ancient settlement of Khirbet Qumran, on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea.The texts are of great...
. Mishnaic Hebrew is considered to be one of the dialects of Classical Hebrew that functioned as a living language in the land of Israel to almost 400 CE.
About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew began to fall into disuse as a spoken language. The later section of the Talmud, the Babylonian
GemaraThe Gemara is the part of the Talmud that contains rabbinical commentaries and analysis of the Mishnah. After the Mishnah was published by Rabbi Judah the Prince The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or, less commonly, Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally, "[to] study" or "learning by...
, published around 500 AD, generally comments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in Aramaic. (An earlier version of the
GemaraThe Gemara is the part of the Talmud that contains rabbinical commentaries and analysis of the Mishnah. After the Mishnah was published by Rabbi Judah the Prince The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or, less commonly, Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally, "[to] study" or "learning by...
was published between 350-400 AD.)
Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later
AmoraAmora , were renowned Jewish scholars who "said" or "told over" the teachings of the Oral law, from about 200 to 500 CE in Babylonia and the Land of Israel. Their legal discussions and debates were eventually codified in the Gemara...
ic Hebrew, which sometimes occurs in the text of the Gemara. Moreover, the multi-lingual character of Jewish culture is emphasized by these texts, with scholars simultaneously reading the Mishah in Hebrew yet commenting in Aramaic to reach a wider audience, indicating the active use of both languages. These indications do not establish whether Aramaic was used because Hebrew had declined among Jews themselves or to reach a wider audience, similar to the writing of the
ChristianA Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who Christians believe was the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, and the Son of God.The term "Christian" is also used adjectivally to...
New TestamentThe New Testament is the name given to the second major division of the Christian Bible, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament, both terms being associated with Supersessionism...
in Greek to reach throughout the known world.
Phonetics
Mishnaic Hebrew probably sounded much like Late Biblical Hebrew.
However, final /m/ is often replaced with final /n/ in the Mishna (see Bava Kama 1:4, "מועדין"), but only in agreement morphemes. Perhaps the final nasal consonant in these morphemes was not pronounced, and instead the vowel previous to it was nasalized. Alternatively, the agreement morphemes may have changed under the influence of Aramaic.
Also, some surviving manuscripts of the Mishna confuse guttural consonants, especially (א) (a
glottal stopThe glottal stop, or more fully, the voiceless glottal plosive, is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. In English the feature is represented for example by the hyphen in uh-oh! and by the apostrophe or [[ʻokina]] in Hawaii among those attempting an authentic pronunciation of...
) and 'ayin (ע) (a
pharyngealThe word pharyngeal, meaning to do with the pharynx or throat, may refer to:* Pharynx, for pharyngeal anatomy* Pharyngeal muscles**Superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle** Middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle** Inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle...
fricative). That could be a sign that they were pronounced the same in Mishnaic Hebrew.
Verb tenses
The verbal system in Mishnaic Hebrew is similar to Biblical Hebrew, but with changes that appear in many other dialects of Hebrew, including the Hebrew of the
Dead Sea ScrollsThe Dead Sea scrolls consist of about 900 documents, including texts from the Hebrew Bible, discovered between 1947 and 1956 in eleven caves in and around the Qumran Wadi near the ruins of the ancient settlement of Khirbet Qumran, on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea.The texts are of great...
and Modern Hebrew. Missing in Mishnaic Hebrew is the conversive vav.
Past is expressed using the same form as in Modern Hebrew. For example (
Pirkei AvothPirkei Avot , literally, Chapters of the Fathers, also called Ethics of the Fathers, is a compilation of the ethical teachings and maxims of the Rabbis of the Mishnaic period...
1:1): "משה קיבל תורה מסיני". ("Moses received the Torah from Sinai".)
Continuous past is expressed using
+ , unlike Biblical but like Modern Hebrew. For example (Pirkei Avoth 1:2): "הוא היה אומר" ("He often said".)
Present is expressed using the same form as in Modern Hebrew, i.e. using the participle (בינוני). For example (Pirkei Avoth 1:2): "על שלושה דברים העולם עומד". ("The world is sustained by three things", lit. "On three things the world is sustained")
Future is expressed using the future form or by עתיד + infinitive. For example (Pirkei Avoth 3:1): "ולפני מי אתה עתיד ליתן דין וחשבון".
The imperative (order) is expressed using a form similar to future in modern Hebrew. For example, (Pirkei Avoth 1:3): "הוא היה אומר, אל תהיו כעבדים המשמשין את הרב" ("He would say, don't be like slaves serving the master...", lit. "...you will not be...").
See also
- Tiberian Hebrew language (liturgical)
- Yemenite Hebrew language
Yemenite Hebrew, also referred to as Temani Hebrew, is the pronunciation system for Biblical and liturgical Hebrew traditionally used by Yemenite Jews...
(liturgical)
- Sanaani Hebrew language (liturgical)
- Sephardi Hebrew language
Sephardi Hebrew is the pronunciation system for Biblical Hebrew favored for liturgical use by Sephardi Jewish practice. Its phonology was influenced by contact languages such as Spanish, Ladino, Portuguese, Dutch and Arabic.- Phonology of Sephardi Hebrew :...
(liturgical)
- Ashkenazi Hebrew language (liturgical)
- Mizrahi Hebrew language
Mizrahi Hebrew or Oriental Hebrew refers to any of the pronunciation systems for Biblical Hebrew used liturgically by Mizrahi Jews, that is, Jews originating in Arab countries or further east, and with a background of Arabic, Persian, Hindi, Turkish, or other languages of the Middle East and Asia...
(liturgical)
- Modern Hebrew language (State of Israel)
External links
Further reading
- Bar-Asher, Moshe, Mishnaic Hebrew: An Introductory Survey, Hebrew Studies 40 (1999) 115-151.
- Kutscher, E.Y. A Short History of the Hebrew Language, Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1982 pp. 115-146.
- Pérez Fernández, Miguel, An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew (trans. John Elwolde), Leiden: E.J. Brill 1997.
- Sáenz-Badillos, Angel, A History of the Hebrew Language (ISBN 0-521-55634-1) (trans. John Elwolde), Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993.