Luxilus coccogenis
Encyclopedia
Luxilus coccogenis, also known as the warpaint shiner, is a species of freshwater fish found in North America
. The warpaint shiner is common in the upper Tennessee River
basin as well as in the Savannah River
, the Santee River
, and the New River
in North Carolina
. Adults have a mean length of 9 centimetres (3.5 in) and can reach a maximum length of 14 centimetres (5.5 in). The maximum age reported for this species is 4 years.
Warpaint shiners live in cool streams with gravel and rubble beds. They feed on aquatic insect larvae and on terrestrial insects they catch on the water surface. The warpaint shiner provides forage
for sport fish such as small and large mouth bass. Importantly the warpaint shiner acts as host
to the federally endangered freshwater mussels known as heelsplitters
.
to the federally endangered freshwater mussels known as heelsplitters
. Heelsplitter populations have been adversely affected by human activities, such as the construction of dams and the pollution and siltation
resulting from large scale agriculture. Heelsplitters have been extirpated from much of their native range. This mussel species depends on the warpaint shiner to act as a host to larval mussels that attach to the fish gill
s during their maturation. Further information is needed to establish the importance of the warpaint shiner as a species, and how it should be managed and protected.
to the Upper Tennessee River drainage, Western Virginia, Western North Carolina, Northern Georgia and Northern Alabama. It may also be found in adjacent tributaries of the Savannah River in North Carolina and South Carolina, the Catawba, Savannah, and Broad River drainages. Warpaint shiners have been introduced (it is suspected due to bait bucket release) in the New River drainage in North Carolina and Virginia, and the Santee drainage in South Carolina. The impact of these introductions is not known. The warpaint shiner is listed as “present and probably introduced” in the Kanawha River drainage, above the falls. The warpaint shiner persists in its historical range although populations have been negatively affected by damming activity, siltation, and pollution in some locations and are currently threatened in Alabama.
freshwater fish found in rubble and gravel riffle
s and the pools of fast creeks with high clarity. They prefer cool, clear, and small to medium sized rivers and streams with rocky substrate
s. The warpaint shiner is an insectivore
. During the spring the warpaint shiner uses its large terminal mouth to primarily feed on aquatic insect larva from the order Ephemeroptera, such as mayfly
nymph
s. During the summer warpaint shiners feed mostly terrestrial insects, taken at the surface belonging to the orders Hymenoptera
and Coleoptera. Largemouth bass
and smallmouth bass
are the two primary predators of the warpaint shiner. Associates of the warpaint shiner include the saffron shiner
and the river chub. These small forage fish
are often found together in small schools
. Warpaint shiners have been observed spawning over the circular nests of the river chub. The warpaint shiner's dependence on clear running water and a rocky substrate to spawn successfully makes it susceptible to the slowing or stopping of rivers and streams by dams and the siltation resulting from river bank destabilization due to farming operations and land development.
resulting from deforestation
, loss of riparian cover, siltation
and the creation of impoundment
s pose the greatest risk to the warpaint shiner. The warpaint shiner is not a valued sport or pan fish and the population is relatively stable in most of its range. The management measures necessary to preserve these fish are beneficial not only to the warpaint shiner but to a myriad of stream dwelling fishes. The warpaint shiner also provides important forage for very popular sport fish such as the largemouth bass and smallmouth bass. Additionally, the warpaint shiner is known to be a host for the Tennessee heelsplitter, a federally endangered freshwater mussel. In their larval stage these mussels are parasitic and need to attach to the gills or fins of fish in order to mature into juveniles. Because freshwater mussels are the most endangered category of animals in North America, the protection of the fishes that act as hosts for the mussel larva is essential for the recovery of the species.
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
. The warpaint shiner is common in the upper Tennessee River
Tennessee River
The Tennessee River is the largest tributary of the Ohio River. It is approximately 652 miles long and is located in the southeastern United States in the Tennessee Valley. The river was once popularly known as the Cherokee River, among other names...
basin as well as in the Savannah River
Savannah River
The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the northernmost part of the border...
, the Santee River
Santee River
The Santee River is a river in South Carolina in the United States, long. The Santee and its tributaries provide the principal drainage and navigation for the central coastal plain of South Carolina, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean approximately from its farthest headwater on the Catawba River...
, and the New River
New River (North Carolina)
The New River is a 50-mile long river in southeastern North Carolina in the United States. It empties into the Atlantic Ocean.It rises in northwestern Onslow County and flows east-southeast past Jacksonville, where it widens into a tidal estuary approximately two miles wide...
in North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
. Adults have a mean length of 9 centimetres (3.5 in) and can reach a maximum length of 14 centimetres (5.5 in). The maximum age reported for this species is 4 years.
Warpaint shiners live in cool streams with gravel and rubble beds. They feed on aquatic insect larvae and on terrestrial insects they catch on the water surface. The warpaint shiner provides forage
Forage fish
Forage fish, also called prey fish or bait fish, are small fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Typical ocean forage fish feed near the base of the food chain on plankton, often by filter feeding...
for sport fish such as small and large mouth bass. Importantly the warpaint shiner acts as host
Host (biology)
In biology, a host is an organism that harbors a parasite, or a mutual or commensal symbiont, typically providing nourishment and shelter. In botany, a host plant is one that supplies food resources and substrate for certain insects or other fauna...
to the federally endangered freshwater mussels known as heelsplitters
Tennessee heelsplitter
The Tennessee heelsplitter, Lasmigona holstonia, is a species of freshwater mussel, an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family Unionidae.This species is endemic to the United States.-References:* Bogan, A.E. 1996. . Downloaded on 7 August 2007....
.
Range and breeding
Warpaint shiners were originally found only in the Tennessee River drainage. Due to human activity, the species has been introduced into the Upper Savannah, the Santee, and the New River drainages. Warpaint shiners inhabit moderate to high gradient creeks, streams, and rivers with clear, cool water where they feed on aquatic insects. Their life expectancy is from two to four years during which they grow to between 65 mm and 95 mm in length. The breeding season for warpaint shiners spans from May to June, during which time an individual will produce an average of 750 offspring. Importantly the warpaint shiner acts as hostHost (biology)
In biology, a host is an organism that harbors a parasite, or a mutual or commensal symbiont, typically providing nourishment and shelter. In botany, a host plant is one that supplies food resources and substrate for certain insects or other fauna...
to the federally endangered freshwater mussels known as heelsplitters
Tennessee heelsplitter
The Tennessee heelsplitter, Lasmigona holstonia, is a species of freshwater mussel, an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family Unionidae.This species is endemic to the United States.-References:* Bogan, A.E. 1996. . Downloaded on 7 August 2007....
. Heelsplitter populations have been adversely affected by human activities, such as the construction of dams and the pollution and siltation
Siltation
Siltation is the pollution of water by fine particulate terrestrial clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay. It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments, and to the increased accumulation of fine sediments on bottoms where they are undesirable...
resulting from large scale agriculture. Heelsplitters have been extirpated from much of their native range. This mussel species depends on the warpaint shiner to act as a host to larval mussels that attach to the fish gill
Gill
A gill is a respiratory organ found in many aquatic organisms that extracts dissolved oxygen from water, afterward excreting carbon dioxide. The gills of some species such as hermit crabs have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are kept moist...
s during their maturation. Further information is needed to establish the importance of the warpaint shiner as a species, and how it should be managed and protected.
Geographic distribution of species
The warpaint shiner is indigenousIndigenous
Indigenous means: belonging to a certain place.Indigenous may refer to:In Ecology and Geography*Indigenous resources, resources which exist within local geography, that are not imported...
to the Upper Tennessee River drainage, Western Virginia, Western North Carolina, Northern Georgia and Northern Alabama. It may also be found in adjacent tributaries of the Savannah River in North Carolina and South Carolina, the Catawba, Savannah, and Broad River drainages. Warpaint shiners have been introduced (it is suspected due to bait bucket release) in the New River drainage in North Carolina and Virginia, and the Santee drainage in South Carolina. The impact of these introductions is not known. The warpaint shiner is listed as “present and probably introduced” in the Kanawha River drainage, above the falls. The warpaint shiner persists in its historical range although populations have been negatively affected by damming activity, siltation, and pollution in some locations and are currently threatened in Alabama.
Ecology
Adult warpaint shiners are a pelagicPelagic fish
Pelagic fish live near the surface or in the water column of coastal, ocean and lake waters, but not on the bottom of the sea or the lake. They can be contrasted with demersal fish, which do live on or near the bottom, and reef fish which are associated with coral reefs.The marine pelagic...
freshwater fish found in rubble and gravel riffle
Riffle
A Riffle is a short, relatively shallow and coarse-bedded length of stream over which the stream flows at higher velocity and higher turbulence than it normally does in comparison to a pool....
s and the pools of fast creeks with high clarity. They prefer cool, clear, and small to medium sized rivers and streams with rocky substrate
Substrate
Substrate may mean:*Substrate , Natural stone, masonry surface, ceramic and porcelain tiles*Substrate , the material used in the bottom of an aquarium*Substrate , the material used in the bottom of a vivarium or terrarium...
s. The warpaint shiner is an insectivore
Insectivore
An insectivore is a type of carnivore with a diet that consists chiefly of insects and similar small creatures. An alternate term is entomophage, which also refers to the human practice of eating insects....
. During the spring the warpaint shiner uses its large terminal mouth to primarily feed on aquatic insect larva from the order Ephemeroptera, such as mayfly
Mayfly
Mayflies are insects which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera . They have been placed into an ancient group of insects termed the Palaeoptera, which also contains dragonflies and damselflies...
nymph
Nymph
A nymph in Greek mythology is a female minor nature deity typically associated with a particular location or landform. Different from gods, nymphs are generally regarded as divine spirits who animate nature, and are usually depicted as beautiful, young nubile maidens who love to dance and sing;...
s. During the summer warpaint shiners feed mostly terrestrial insects, taken at the surface belonging to the orders Hymenoptera
Hymenoptera
Hymenoptera is one of the largest orders of insects, comprising the sawflies, wasps, bees and ants. There are over 130,000 recognized species, with many more remaining to be described. The name refers to the heavy wings of the insects, and is derived from the Ancient Greek ὑμήν : membrane and...
and Coleoptera. Largemouth bass
Largemouth bass
The largemouth bass is a species of black bass in the sunfish family native to North America . It is also known as widemouth bass, bigmouth, black bass, bucketmouth, Potter's fish, Florida bass, Florida largemouth, green bass, green trout, linesides, Oswego bass, southern largemouth...
and smallmouth bass
Smallmouth bass
The smallmouth bass is a species of freshwater fish in the sunfish family of the order Perciformes. It is the type species of its genus...
are the two primary predators of the warpaint shiner. Associates of the warpaint shiner include the saffron shiner
Saffron Shiner
Saffron Shiner is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Notropis.-Introduction:Saffron shiners are found only in cold, clear, and rocky streams and creeks surrounding the Tennessee River drainage...
and the river chub. These small forage fish
Forage fish
Forage fish, also called prey fish or bait fish, are small fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Typical ocean forage fish feed near the base of the food chain on plankton, often by filter feeding...
are often found together in small schools
Shoaling and schooling
In biology, any group of fish that stay together for social reasons are said to be shoaling , and if, in addition, the group is swimming in the same direction in a coordinated manner, they are said to be schooling . In common usage, the terms are sometimes used rather loosely...
. Warpaint shiners have been observed spawning over the circular nests of the river chub. The warpaint shiner's dependence on clear running water and a rocky substrate to spawn successfully makes it susceptible to the slowing or stopping of rivers and streams by dams and the siltation resulting from river bank destabilization due to farming operations and land development.
Life history
Warpaint shiners reach sexual maturity at two years of age spawning for the first time in their third summer. Spawning occurs in clear running water over the margins of circular rock nests constructed by river chubs and takes place in May and June. Males will hover over the nest in groups of eight to ten with the largest male at the front. Females approach from behind the males and they pair off and settle into a crevice where sperm and eggs are released. Other males will crowd around a spawning pair and attempt to fertilize the eggs. There is no parental care by either the male or the female after spawning. Each spawning can result in 300 to 1600 offspring. Warpaint shiners in the wild live to be around four years of age, slightly longer lifespans have be recorded for specimens in captivity.Current Management
Currently there are no active management initiatives specifically for the warpaint shiner. Though the warpaint shiner is considered a “special concern” in parts of Alabama and South Carolina, global populations are considered stable and secure. Habitat destructionHabitat destruction
Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species present. In this process, the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed, reducing biodiversity. Habitat destruction by human activity mainly for the purpose of...
resulting from deforestation
Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a nonforest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use....
, loss of riparian cover, siltation
Siltation
Siltation is the pollution of water by fine particulate terrestrial clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay. It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments, and to the increased accumulation of fine sediments on bottoms where they are undesirable...
and the creation of impoundment
Impoundment
Impoundment is the election of a President of the United States not to spend money that has been appropriated by the U.S. Congress. The precedent for presidential impoundment was first set by Thomas Jefferson in 1801. The power was available to all presidents up to and including Richard Nixon, and...
s pose the greatest risk to the warpaint shiner. The warpaint shiner is not a valued sport or pan fish and the population is relatively stable in most of its range. The management measures necessary to preserve these fish are beneficial not only to the warpaint shiner but to a myriad of stream dwelling fishes. The warpaint shiner also provides important forage for very popular sport fish such as the largemouth bass and smallmouth bass. Additionally, the warpaint shiner is known to be a host for the Tennessee heelsplitter, a federally endangered freshwater mussel. In their larval stage these mussels are parasitic and need to attach to the gills or fins of fish in order to mature into juveniles. Because freshwater mussels are the most endangered category of animals in North America, the protection of the fishes that act as hosts for the mussel larva is essential for the recovery of the species.