Kra languages
Encyclopedia
The Kra languages also called Gēyāng (仡央, short for Kláo
–Bouxyaeŋz
) in China, are a branch of the Tai–Kadai family spoken in southern China
(Yunnan
, Guangxi
, Hainan
) and in northern Vietnam
. Out of the entire Tai–Kadai family, the Kra branch is the least studied. Individual Kra languages have only been recently described in any detail.
The name Kra comes from the word *kra C "human", which appears as kra, ka, fa, ha in various Kra languages. Benedict (1942) used the compound Kra–Dai for the Kra and Hlai languages taken together, and the term is retained by Ethnologue
, which includes one of the Hlai languages within Kra.
, has been used to support a proposed connection with the Austronesian family
. (See Austro-Tai.) Unlike the Tai and Kam–Sui languages, most Kra languages, including Gelao and Buyang, have preserved the proto-Kadai numerical systems. The only other Tai–Kadai branch that preserves this is Hlai
. Most other Tai–Kadai languages adopted Chinese numbers over 1,000 years ago.
As noted by linguist Jerold A. Edmondson
, the Kra languages contain words in metalworking, handicrafts, and agriculture that are not attested in any other Tai–Kadai language. This suggests that the Kra peoples may have developed many technological innovations independently of other ethnic groups.
of the family. There are about a dozen Kra languages, depending on how languages and dialects are defined. The best known is perhaps the Gelao (Klao) dialect cluster, with about 8,000 speakers in China out of an ethnic population of approximately 500,000.
The internal classification below is from Ostapirat (2002), which splits the Kra branch into a total of 7 languages.
According to Edmondson (2002), Laha is too conservative to be in Western Kra, and he makes it a branch of its own. Ethnologue mistakenly includes the Hlai language
Cun
of Hainan in Kra; this is not supported by either Ostapirat or Edmondson.
(Lachi), La Ha
(Laha), and Pu Péo
(Qabiao). In China, only the Gelao people have official status. The other Kra peoples are variously classified as Zhuang, Buyi, and Han.
Within China, "hotspots" for Kra languages include most of western Guizhou
, the prefecture-level city
of Baise in western Guangxi
, Wenshan Prefecture
(文山壮族苗族自治州) in southeastern Yunnan
, as well as Hà Giang Province
in northern Vietnam
. This distribution runs along a northeast-southwest geographic vector, forming what Jerold A. Edmondson calls a "language corridor."
Multigualism is common among Kra language speakers. For example, many Buyang can also speak the Zhuang language
.
Gelao language
Gelao is a dialect cluster of Kra languages in the Tai–Kadai language family, spoken by the Gelao people in China and Vietnam. Despite an ethnic population of 580,000 , however, only a few thousand still speak the language...
–Bouxyaeŋz
Buyang language
Buyang is a Tai–Kadai language spoken in Guangnan and Funing counties, Yunnan Province, China by the Buyang people. It is important to the reconstruction of Austro-Tai as it retains the disyllabic roots characteristic of Austronesian languages. Examples are "to die", "eye", "head", and "eight"...
) in China, are a branch of the Tai–Kadai family spoken in southern China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
(Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
, Guangxi
Guangxi
Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
, Hainan
Hainan
Hainan is the smallest province of the People's Republic of China . Although the province comprises some two hundred islands scattered among three archipelagos off the southern coast, of its land mass is Hainan Island , from which the province takes its name...
) and in northern Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
. Out of the entire Tai–Kadai family, the Kra branch is the least studied. Individual Kra languages have only been recently described in any detail.
The name Kra comes from the word *kra C "human", which appears as kra, ka, fa, ha in various Kra languages. Benedict (1942) used the compound Kra–Dai for the Kra and Hlai languages taken together, and the term is retained by Ethnologue
Ethnologue
Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International , a Christian linguistic service organization, which studies lesser-known languages, to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language and support their efforts in language development.The Ethnologue...
, which includes one of the Hlai languages within Kra.
Significance
Several Kra languages have consonant clusters and disyllabic words, whereas other Kradai languages only have single consonants. One such language, BuyangBuyang language
Buyang is a Tai–Kadai language spoken in Guangnan and Funing counties, Yunnan Province, China by the Buyang people. It is important to the reconstruction of Austro-Tai as it retains the disyllabic roots characteristic of Austronesian languages. Examples are "to die", "eye", "head", and "eight"...
, has been used to support a proposed connection with the Austronesian family
Austronesian languages
The Austronesian languages are a language family widely dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, with a few members spoken on continental Asia that are spoken by about 386 million people. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger-Congo, Afroasiatic and Uralic as one of the...
. (See Austro-Tai.) Unlike the Tai and Kam–Sui languages, most Kra languages, including Gelao and Buyang, have preserved the proto-Kadai numerical systems. The only other Tai–Kadai branch that preserves this is Hlai
Hlai languages
The Hlai languages are a primary branch of the Tai–Kadai language family spoken in China on the island of Hainan. They include Hlai proper, with 600,000 speakers, and Cun, which has 80,000 speakers. The most divergent language is Jiamao, with 52,300 speakers in southern Hainan.-Classification:The...
. Most other Tai–Kadai languages adopted Chinese numbers over 1,000 years ago.
As noted by linguist Jerold A. Edmondson
Jerold A. Edmondson
Jerold A. Edmondson is a professor of linguistics at the University of Texas at Arlington. Edmondson is a leading specialist in Tai–Kadai languages, especially the Kam–Sui branch. He was one of the researchers who discovered the En language during a linguistic field expedition in the late...
, the Kra languages contain words in metalworking, handicrafts, and agriculture that are not attested in any other Tai–Kadai language. This suggests that the Kra peoples may have developed many technological innovations independently of other ethnic groups.
Classification
Morphological similarities suggest the Kra languages are closest to the Kam–Sui branchKam–Sui languages
The Kam–Sui languages are a branch of the Tai–Kadai languages spoken by the Kam–Sui peoples. They are spoken mainly in eastern Guizhou, western Hunan, and northern Guangxi in southern China. Small pockets of Kam–Sui speakers are also found in northern Vietnam and Laos.-Classification:Kam–Sui...
of the family. There are about a dozen Kra languages, depending on how languages and dialects are defined. The best known is perhaps the Gelao (Klao) dialect cluster, with about 8,000 speakers in China out of an ethnic population of approximately 500,000.
The internal classification below is from Ostapirat (2002), which splits the Kra branch into a total of 7 languages.
According to Edmondson (2002), Laha is too conservative to be in Western Kra, and he makes it a branch of its own. Ethnologue mistakenly includes the Hlai language
Hlai languages
The Hlai languages are a primary branch of the Tai–Kadai language family spoken in China on the island of Hainan. They include Hlai proper, with 600,000 speakers, and Cun, which has 80,000 speakers. The most divergent language is Jiamao, with 52,300 speakers in southern Hainan.-Classification:The...
Cun
Cun language
Cun is a variety of Hlai language on Hainan Island. Lexical similarity with standard Hlai is 40%....
of Hainan in Kra; this is not supported by either Ostapirat or Edmondson.
Demographics
The Kra languages have a total of about 22,000 speakers. In Vietnam, officially recognized Kra peoples are the Cờ Lao (Gelao), La ChíLachi people
The La Chi people live in the Hà Giang and Lào Cai provinces of northeastern Vietnam. Their population is approximately 10,765 people . They speak the Lachi language, which is part of the Kradai language group....
(Lachi), La Ha
Laha people
The La Ha are an ethnic group of Vietnam. Most La Ha live in the Yên Bái and Sơn La provinces, and number approximately 5,686 people . They speak the Laha language, which is part of the Tai–Kadai language family....
(Laha), and Pu Péo
Qabiao people
The Qabiao people are an ethnic group living in Hà Giang, Vietnam, and Yunnan Province, China. and the total population was 705 in 1999, while Liang cites a total population of 777. In China, they are classified with the Yi people...
(Qabiao). In China, only the Gelao people have official status. The other Kra peoples are variously classified as Zhuang, Buyi, and Han.
Within China, "hotspots" for Kra languages include most of western Guizhou
Guizhou
' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :...
, the prefecture-level city
Prefecture-level city
A prefectural level city , prefectural city or prefectural level municipality is an administrative division of the People's Republic of China, ranking below a province and above a county in China's administrative structure. Prefectural level cities form the second level of the administrative...
of Baise in western Guangxi
Guangxi
Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
, Wenshan Prefecture
Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture
Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture in Yunnan Province, China.-Subdivisions:-Ethnic groups:Wenshan is highly diverse...
(文山壮族苗族自治州) in southeastern Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
, as well as Hà Giang Province
Hà Giang Province
Hà Giang is a province in northeastern Vietnam. It is located in the far north of the country, and contains Vietnam’s northernmost point. It shares a 270 km long border with Yunnan province of southern China. Hence it is known as the final frontier of Vietnam...
in northern Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
. This distribution runs along a northeast-southwest geographic vector, forming what Jerold A. Edmondson calls a "language corridor."
Multigualism is common among Kra language speakers. For example, many Buyang can also speak the Zhuang language
Zhuang language
The Zhuang languages are any of various Tai languages used by the Zhuang people. Most speakers live in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region within the People's Republic of China, where the Wuming variety is an official language...
.
- Western
- LachiLachi languageThe Lachi language is a Kra language spoken in Yunnan, China and in northern Vietnam. There were 9,500 Lachi speakers in Vietnam as of 1990...
拉基 – 10,300 (7,863 in Vietnam in 1990; 2,500 in Maguan County, Yunnan, China in 1995) - GelaoGelao languageGelao is a dialect cluster of Kra languages in the Tai–Kadai language family, spoken by the Gelao people in China and Vietnam. Despite an ethnic population of 580,000 , however, only a few thousand still speak the language...
仡佬 – 7,900 (spoken in GuizhouGuizhou' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :...
, Longlin County in GuangxiGuangxiGuangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
, and northern Vietnam) - LahaLaha languageLaha is a Kra language spoken by approximately 1,400 people out of a total population of 5,686 Laha. It is spoken in Lào Cai and Sơn La provinces, Vietnam. Laha dialects had been documented in 1986 by Russian linguists and in 1996 by American linguist Jerold A. Edmondson...
拉哈 – 1,400 (officially recognized in Vietnam; most divergent western Kra language)
- Lachi
- Eastern
- BuyangBuyang languageBuyang is a Tai–Kadai language spoken in Guangnan and Funing counties, Yunnan Province, China by the Buyang people. It is important to the reconstruction of Austro-Tai as it retains the disyllabic roots characteristic of Austronesian languages. Examples are "to die", "eye", "head", and "eight"...
布央 dialect cluster – 2,000- PahaPaha languagePaha is a Kra language spoken in northern Guangnan County, Wenshan Prefecture, Yunnan. The two villages are located near the border with Longlin County, Guangxi. Paha is often considered to be part of the Buyang dialect cluster and is the most divergent form...
巴哈 (considered a separate language by Ostapirat; spoken in Yangliancun 央连村, Diyu Township, Guangnan CountyGuangnan CountyGuangnan County is located in Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan province, China.-Climate:-Historical sites:Grave of Princess Anhua...
广南, YunnanYunnanYunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
) - Langjia 郎架 (spoken in Langjia 郎架, Funing CountyFuning CountyFuning may refer to the following locations in China:*Funing, an old name for Ningde Municipal Region, Fujian*Funing County, Hebei , of Qinhuangdao, Hebei*Funing County, Jiangsu , of Yancheng, Jiangsu...
富宁县, YunnanYunnanYunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
along the GuangxiGuangxiGuangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
border) - Ecun 峨村 (spoken in Ecun 峨村, Funing CountyFuning CountyFuning may refer to the following locations in China:*Funing, an old name for Ningde Municipal Region, Fujian*Funing County, Hebei , of Qinhuangdao, Hebei*Funing County, Jiangsu , of Yancheng, Jiangsu...
富宁县, YunnanYunnanYunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
along the GuangxiGuangxiGuangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
border) - Yalang 雅郎 (Yalhong; spoken in Rongtun 荣屯, Napo CountyNapo CountyNapo County is a county of Guangxi, China. It is under the administration of Baise city....
那坡, GuangxiGuangxiGuangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
)
- Paha
- QabiaoQabiao languageQabiao is a Tai–Kadai language spoken by the Qabiao people in northern Vietnam and Yunnan, China. Alternative names for Qabiao include Kabeo, Ka Beo, Ka Bao, Ka Biao, Laqua, Pubiao and Pen Ti Lolo...
(Pubiao 普标, Pu Peo) – 700 - EnEn languageEn is a Kra language spoken in Vietnam. Before its discovery in 1998, En language was undistinguished from Nùng, which is a Central Tai language closely related to Zhuang...
(Nùng Vên; spoken in northern Vietnam) – 250
- Buyang
Numerals
| Language | One | Two | Three | Four | Five | Six | Seven | Eight | Nine | Ten |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Proto-Austronesian) | *isa | *duSa | *telu | *Sepat | *lima | *enem | *pitu | *walu | *Siwa | *sa-puluq |
| Proto-Kra | *tʂəm C | *sa A | *tu A | *pə A | *r-ma A | *x-nəm A | *t-ru A | *m-ru A | *s-ɣwa B | *pwlot D |
| Buyang, Baha | tɕam45 | θa322 | tu322 | pa322 | m̥a33 | nam31 | ðu33 | mu31 | dʱa33 | pʷat55 |
| Buyang, Ecun | pi53 | θa24 | tu24 | pa24 | ma44 | nam24 | tu44 | ma0 ðu44 | va55 | put55 |
| Buyang, Langjia | am35 | ɕa54 | tu54 | pa54 | ma312 | nam54 | ðu312 | ma0 ðu312 | va11 | put55 |
| Buyang, Yerong | ɔm55 | θau53 | taːi53 | po53 | mo43 | naːm53 | təu31 | ɬəu43 | vo55 | pɔt55 |
| En (Nung Ven) | ʔam332 | θa243 | tu243 | pa33 | ma243 | nəm243 | ʔam332 tu243 | me332 ru33 | wa54 | θət33 |
| Qabiao | tɕia33 | ɕe53 | tau53 | pe53 | ma33 | ma33 nam35 | ma33 tu53 | ma33 ʐɯ33 | ma33 ɕia31 | pət31 |
| Laha, Wet | tɕɐm31 | sa343 | tu343 | pɑ343 | mɑ33 | dɐm343 | tʰo343 | ma33 hu33 | so33 wa24 | pɤt23 |
| Gelao, Bigong | sɿ55 təɯ33 | səɯ31 təɯ33 | tɔ31 | pɔ31 | mɔ31 | nai31 | tʰɔ31 | ʑɔ31 | ʑɔu31 | hui13 |
| Gelao, Moji | tsɿ53 | səu31 | ta31 | pu31 | mlau31 | tɕʰau31 | xei31 | xe31 | kəu31 | tsʰei53 |
| Gelao, Puding | se55 | so55 | tua55 | pu45 | mu53 | naŋ53 | ɕi33 | vra53 | su33 | paɯ33 |
| Gelao, Pudi | sɪ55 | səɯ42 | tji42 | pau42 | mau31 | mjaŋ31 | te42 | ɣe31 | sau13 | ɕye13 |
| Gelao, Red | tsə44 | se33 | tua44 | pu44 | maŋ44 | ɬoŋ44 | te44 | wu35 | ʂe35 | la51 kwe44 |
| Gelao, White | tsɿ33 | sɯn35 | tau55 | pu55 | mlən35 | tɕʰau55 | hi55 | ɕiau55 | ku55 | tɕʰiu33 |
| Gelao, Sanchong | ʂɿ43 | ʂa45 | tau45 | pu45 | mei21 | ȵaŋ21 | tʂau45 | ʑau21 | ʂo43 | sɿ43 pie43 |
| Mulao | tsɿ53 | ɬu24 | ta24 | pʰu24 | mu31 | ȵe31 | sau31 | ɣau31 | so24 | ve53 |
| Lachi | tɕa33 | su11 | te11 | pu11 | m̩11 | ȵiã11 | te24 | ŋuɛ11 | liu24 | pɛ11 |
Further reading
- Ostapirat, Weera (2000). "Proto-Kra". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 23 (1): 1-251
- Edmondson, Jerold A. (2002). The Laha language and its position in Proto-Krahttp://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/laha.pdf