God's utility function
Encyclopedia
God's utility function is a phrase coined by Richard Dawkins
in his book River Out of Eden
. "God's utility function" is the third chapter in this book. Dawkins uses this phrase to expound the Gene-centered view of evolution
by equating the phrase to the meaning of life
or the purpose of life. This is the why question about life which philosophers and theologians have been pondering in vain for ages, and is a counterpart to the how question about nature which engineers have been able to resolve successfully.
Dawkins first recounts how Charles Darwin
lost his faith in religion by quoting his words, "I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent
and omnipotent God
would have designedly created the Ichneumonidae
with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of Caterpillars." We ask why a caterpillar should suffer
such cruel punishment. We ask why digger wasp
s couldn't first kill caterpillars to save them from a prolonged and agonizing torture. We ask why a child should die an untimely death. And we ask why we should all grow old
and die
.
Dawkins rephrases the word purpose in terms of what economists call a utility function, meaning "that which is maximized". Engineers often investigate the intended purpose (or utility function) of a piece of equipment using reverse engineering
. Dawkins uses this technique to reverse-engineer the purpose in the mind of the Divine Engineer of Nature, or the Utility Function of God.
According to Dawkins, it is a mistake to assume that an ecosystem
or a species
as a whole exists for a purpose. In fact, it is wrong to suppose that individual organisms lead a meaningful life either. In nature, only genes have a utility function – to perpetuate their own existence with indifference to great suffering
s inflicted upon the organisms they build, exploit and discard. As hinted at in chapter one, genes are the supreme lords of the natural world. In other words, the unit of selection
is the gene, not an individual, or any other higher-order group as championed by proponents of group selection
.
An ecosystem
, a biome
, a savannah
or a forest
as a whole does not possess a utility function. This is evident when one examines interactions between creatures in these systems. If a savannah had a utility function, cheetahs would have had no need to waste energy running as fast as a Lamborghini
and antelopes would have found it unnecessary to waste resources trying to escape a gruesome death. If a forest had a utility function, tree
s in it would not have evolved to ridiculous heights in an attempt to out compete other species for sunlight. If everybody would just sit down and have a civilized discourse, benefits to the whole system can be maximized while energy spent is minimized. It seems that every species has its own interest before that of the community.
However, if a species
as a whole had a utility function, the sex ratio
for animals with a harem system (such as the elephant seal
s) would not have stayed at the common 50:50 ratio. In such harem systems, a few males monopolize all mating opportunities while the majority of males remain bachelors. This does not make economic sense; a factory with 10 lathes would not hire 100 employees and let them fight out which lucky 10 can work the lathes for a given day. The factory should fire 90 employees, and so should the species reduce the number of males. But this is not what happens in nature. Since mating always involves one male and one female, statistically a son and a daughter should yield equal reproductive success
to a parent in evolutionary time. Thus a 50:50 ratio of offspring makes sense for an individual parent seal, according to the parental expenditure theory of Sir Ronald Fisher. Again, it seems that every individual has its own interest before that of the species
But, individual organisms are not masters of themselves. If an organism had a utility function, it would have chosen to remain young forever and not to die of old age
. Mayflies would very much prefer to have guts so they would not starve to death within hours of emerging from water and completing copulation. Pacific Salmon would rather not die a certain death just days after their first spawning. But this is not what happens in nature. Women lose calcium
to babies during pregnancy
and in milk
production, a lesser form of sacrifice for the sake of their children.
All above dilemmas can be resolved, if one thinks of utility functions from the perspective of DNA and genes. As long as an organism survives its childhood and manages to reproduce thus passing its genes down to the next generation, what happens to the parent organism afterwards does not really bother genes. Because an organism is always at the danger of dying from accidents (a waste of investment), it pays for the genes to build an organism which pools almost all its resources to produce offspring as early as possible. Thus we accumulate damages to our body as we age and harbor late-onset diseases such as Huntington's disease
which have minimum impact on the evolutionary success of our gene overlords.
Genes are pitilessly indifferent to who or what gets hurt, so long as DNA is passed on. And Dawkins wrote at the end:
Richard Dawkins
Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL , known as Richard Dawkins, is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and author...
in his book River Out of Eden
River out of Eden
River Out of Eden: A Darwinian View of Life is a 1995 popular science book by Richard Dawkins. The book is about Darwinian evolution and includes summaries of the topics covered in his earlier books, The Selfish Gene, The Extended Phenotype and The Blind Watchmaker. It is part of the Science...
. "God's utility function" is the third chapter in this book. Dawkins uses this phrase to expound the Gene-centered view of evolution
Gene-centered view of evolution
The gene-centered view of evolution, gene selection theory or selfish gene theory holds that evolution occurs through the differential survival of competing genes, increasing the frequency of those alleles whose phenotypic effects successfully promote their own propagation, with gene defined as...
by equating the phrase to the meaning of life
Meaning of life
The meaning of life constitutes a philosophical question concerning the purpose and significance of life or existence in general. This concept can be expressed through a variety of related questions, such as "Why are we here?", "What is life all about?", and "What is the meaning of it all?" It has...
or the purpose of life. This is the why question about life which philosophers and theologians have been pondering in vain for ages, and is a counterpart to the how question about nature which engineers have been able to resolve successfully.
Dawkins first recounts how Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...
lost his faith in religion by quoting his words, "I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent
Omnibenevolence
Omnibenevolence is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "unlimited or infinite benevolence". It is often held to be impossible, or at least improbable, for a deity to exhibit such property along side omniscience and omnipotence as a result of the problem of evil...
and omnipotent God
God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism....
would have designedly created the Ichneumonidae
Ichneumonidae
Ichneumonidae is a family within the insect order Hymenoptera. Insects in this family are commonly called ichneumon wasps. Less exact terms are ichneumon flies , or scorpion wasps due to the extreme lengthening and curving of the abdomen...
with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of Caterpillars." We ask why a caterpillar should suffer
Suffering
Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, is an individual's basic affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm. Suffering may be qualified as physical or mental. It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. Factors of duration and...
such cruel punishment. We ask why digger wasp
Digger wasp
Wasps of the genus Sphex are cosmopolitan predators of the family Sphecidae that sting and paralyze prey insects. There are over 130 known digger wasp species. In preparation for egg laying, they construct a protected "nest" and then stock it with captured insects...
s couldn't first kill caterpillars to save them from a prolonged and agonizing torture. We ask why a child should die an untimely death. And we ask why we should all grow old
Senescence
Senescence or biological aging is the change in the biology of an organism as it ages after its maturity. Such changes range from those affecting its cells and their function to those affecting the whole organism...
and die
Death
Death is the permanent termination of the biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include old age, predation, malnutrition, disease, and accidents or trauma resulting in terminal injury....
.
Dawkins rephrases the word purpose in terms of what economists call a utility function, meaning "that which is maximized". Engineers often investigate the intended purpose (or utility function) of a piece of equipment using reverse engineering
Reverse engineering
Reverse engineering is the process of discovering the technological principles of a device, object, or system through analysis of its structure, function, and operation...
. Dawkins uses this technique to reverse-engineer the purpose in the mind of the Divine Engineer of Nature, or the Utility Function of God.
According to Dawkins, it is a mistake to assume that an ecosystem
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
or a species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
as a whole exists for a purpose. In fact, it is wrong to suppose that individual organisms lead a meaningful life either. In nature, only genes have a utility function – to perpetuate their own existence with indifference to great suffering
Suffering
Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, is an individual's basic affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm. Suffering may be qualified as physical or mental. It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. Factors of duration and...
s inflicted upon the organisms they build, exploit and discard. As hinted at in chapter one, genes are the supreme lords of the natural world. In other words, the unit of selection
Unit of selection
A unit of selection is a biological entity within the hierarchy of biological organisation that is subject to natural selection...
is the gene, not an individual, or any other higher-order group as championed by proponents of group selection
Group selection
In evolutionary biology, group selection refers to the idea that alleles can become fixed or spread in a population because of the benefits they bestow on groups, regardless of the alleles' effect on the fitness of individuals within that group....
.
An ecosystem
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
, a biome
Biome
Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems. Some parts of the earth have more or less the same kind of abiotic and biotic factors spread over a...
, a savannah
Savannah
Savannah or savanna is a type of grassland.It can also mean:-People:* Savannah King, a Canadian freestyle swimmer* Savannah Outen, a singer who gained popularity on You Tube...
or a forest
Forest
A forest, also referred to as a wood or the woods, is an area with a high density of trees. As with cities, depending where you are in the world, what is considered a forest may vary significantly in size and have various classification according to how and what of the forest is composed...
as a whole does not possess a utility function. This is evident when one examines interactions between creatures in these systems. If a savannah had a utility function, cheetahs would have had no need to waste energy running as fast as a Lamborghini
Lamborghini Murciélago
The Lamborghini Murciélago is a two-door, two-seat sports car produced by Italian automaker Lamborghini between 2001 and 2010. Successor to the Diablo and flagship of the automaker's lineup, the Murciélago was introduced as a coupé in 2001. The automaker's first new design in eleven years, the car...
and antelopes would have found it unnecessary to waste resources trying to escape a gruesome death. If a forest had a utility function, tree
Tree
A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance. A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m to...
s in it would not have evolved to ridiculous heights in an attempt to out compete other species for sunlight. If everybody would just sit down and have a civilized discourse, benefits to the whole system can be maximized while energy spent is minimized. It seems that every species has its own interest before that of the community.
However, if a species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
as a whole had a utility function, the sex ratio
Sex ratio
Sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population. The primary sex ratio is the ratio at the time of conception, secondary sex ratio is the ratio at time of birth, and tertiary sex ratio is the ratio of mature organisms....
for animals with a harem system (such as the elephant seal
Elephant seal
Elephant seals are large, oceangoing seals in the genus Mirounga. There are two species: the northern elephant seal and the southern elephant seal . Both were hunted to the brink of extinction by the end of the 19th century, but numbers have since recovered...
s) would not have stayed at the common 50:50 ratio. In such harem systems, a few males monopolize all mating opportunities while the majority of males remain bachelors. This does not make economic sense; a factory with 10 lathes would not hire 100 employees and let them fight out which lucky 10 can work the lathes for a given day. The factory should fire 90 employees, and so should the species reduce the number of males. But this is not what happens in nature. Since mating always involves one male and one female, statistically a son and a daughter should yield equal reproductive success
Reproductive success
Reproductive success is defined as the passing of genes onto the next generation in a way that they too can pass those genes on. In practice, this is often a tally of the number of offspring produced by an individual. A more correct definition, which incorporates inclusive fitness, is the...
to a parent in evolutionary time. Thus a 50:50 ratio of offspring makes sense for an individual parent seal, according to the parental expenditure theory of Sir Ronald Fisher. Again, it seems that every individual has its own interest before that of the species
But, individual organisms are not masters of themselves. If an organism had a utility function, it would have chosen to remain young forever and not to die of old age
Senescence
Senescence or biological aging is the change in the biology of an organism as it ages after its maturity. Such changes range from those affecting its cells and their function to those affecting the whole organism...
. Mayflies would very much prefer to have guts so they would not starve to death within hours of emerging from water and completing copulation. Pacific Salmon would rather not die a certain death just days after their first spawning. But this is not what happens in nature. Women lose calcium
Calcium
Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft gray alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust...
to babies during pregnancy
Pregnancy
Pregnancy refers to the fertilization and development of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, in a woman's uterus. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets...
and in milk
Milk
Milk is a white liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mother's antibodies to the baby and can reduce the risk of many...
production, a lesser form of sacrifice for the sake of their children.
All above dilemmas can be resolved, if one thinks of utility functions from the perspective of DNA and genes. As long as an organism survives its childhood and manages to reproduce thus passing its genes down to the next generation, what happens to the parent organism afterwards does not really bother genes. Because an organism is always at the danger of dying from accidents (a waste of investment), it pays for the genes to build an organism which pools almost all its resources to produce offspring as early as possible. Thus we accumulate damages to our body as we age and harbor late-onset diseases such as Huntington's disease
Huntington's disease
Huntington's disease, chorea, or disorder , is a neurodegenerative genetic disorder that affects muscle coordination and leads to cognitive decline and dementia. It typically becomes noticeable in middle age. HD is the most common genetic cause of abnormal involuntary writhing movements called chorea...
which have minimum impact on the evolutionary success of our gene overlords.
Genes are pitilessly indifferent to who or what gets hurt, so long as DNA is passed on. And Dawkins wrote at the end:
During the minute it takes me to compose this sentence, thousands of animals are being eaten alive; others are running for their lives, whimpering with fear; others are being slowly devoured from within by rasping parasites; thousands of all kinds are dying from starvation, thirst and disease. It must be so. If there is ever a time of plenty, this very fact will automatically lead to an increase in population until the natural state of starvation and misery is restored.