Extinct languages of the Marañón River basin
Encyclopedia
The Marañón River
basin between Peru and Ecuador, at a low point in the Andes which made it an attractive location for trade between the Inca Empire
and the Amazon basin
, once harbored numerous languages which have been poorly attested, or not attested at all. Those of the middle reaches of the river, above the Amazon basin, were replaced in historical times by Aguaruna
, a Jivaroan language from the Amazon which is still spoken there. The languages further upriver are difficult to identify, due to lack of data. The region was multilingual at the time of the Conquest, and the people largely switched to Spanish rather than to Quechua, though Quechua also expanded during Colonial times.
On the Ecuadorian side of the river, in the province of Loja
, were Palta
, Malacato, Rabona, Bolona, and Xiroa. Historical sources suggest these were closely related, and there is some evidence that Palta (see) was a Jivaroan language. Indeed, the name Xiroa may be a variant of Jivaro. Rabona is attested by a few words, some of which seem to be Jivaroan, but others of which appear to be Candoshí; since these are plant names, they say little about the classification of the language, and Andelaar (2004:397) leaves it unclassified. Bolona is essentially unattested.
North of the basin were Puruhá
(scarcely attested), Cañar (known primarily from characteristic place names), Panzaleo
(sometimes classified as Paezan
), Caranqui (until the 18th century, seemingly Barbacoan), and Pasto (Barbacoan). Apart possibly from Panzaleo, these languages have elements in common, such as a final syllable -pud and onsets mwe-, pwe-, bwe-. Those suggest that they may have been related, and possibly were all Barbacoan. Adelaar (2004:397) finds this more likely than a proposal that Puruhá and Cañar were Chimuan languages
(see).
On the Peruvian side of the river, and further up in the Andes where it enters Peru, there were also numerous languages. Apart from Mochica
and Cholón
, the languages of northern Peru are largely unrecorded; the attested Marañón languages are Patagón (Patagón de Perico), Bagua (Patagón de Bagua), Chacha (Chachapoya), Copallén, Tabancale, Chirino, and Sácata (Chillao).
of Patagonia): Four words are recorded, tuná 'water', anás
'maize', viue 'firewood', coará 'sheep' (evidently the word for 'sloth
'). These suggest that Patagón was a Cariban language, and therefore, like Aguaruna, from the Amazon (Adelaar 2004:405–406).
to the east of the Marañón, were conquered by the Inca shortly before the Spanish conquest, and many were deported after the Inca civil war. They sided with the Spanish, and achieved independence for a time, but were then deported again by the Spanish, where most died of introduced disease. There language is essentially unattested apart from toponyms and several hundred family names. Family names are mostly short and have been distorted through adaptation to Quechua; the only one which can be identified is Oc or Occ [ox], which according to oral history means 'puma' or 'bear' (Adelaar 2004:407).
Chachapoya toponyms ending in -gach(e), -gat(e), -gote are found near water. Between the town of Cajamarca
and the Marañón river is a similar typonymic element, attested variously as -cat(e), -cot(e), -gat(e), -got(e), with -cat found further across a wider area of northern Peru. This may be the Cholón
word for water; the place name Salcot or Zalcot is found three times in Cajamarca, as well as being the name of a Cholón village meaning 'black water'.
.
, but the evidence is insufficient.
Marañón River
The Marañón River rises about 160 km to the northeast of Lima, Peru, flows through a deeply-eroded Andean valley in a northwesterly direction, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of the Andes, as far as 5 degrees 36' southern latitude; then it makes a great bend to the northeast, and...
basin between Peru and Ecuador, at a low point in the Andes which made it an attractive location for trade between the Inca Empire
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire , was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century...
and the Amazon basin
Amazon Basin
The Amazon Basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries that drains an area of about , or roughly 40 percent of South America. The basin is located in the countries of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela...
, once harbored numerous languages which have been poorly attested, or not attested at all. Those of the middle reaches of the river, above the Amazon basin, were replaced in historical times by Aguaruna
Aguaruna language
Aguaruna is an indigenous American language of the Jivaroan family spoken by about 45,000 Aguaruna people in Peru. The speakers live along the western portion of the Marañón River and also along the Potro, Mayo, and Cahuapanas rivers. Native speakers currently prefer the name Awajún. According to...
, a Jivaroan language from the Amazon which is still spoken there. The languages further upriver are difficult to identify, due to lack of data. The region was multilingual at the time of the Conquest, and the people largely switched to Spanish rather than to Quechua, though Quechua also expanded during Colonial times.
On the Ecuadorian side of the river, in the province of Loja
Loja Province
Loja Province is one of 24 provinces in Ecuador and shares its southern border on the west by El Oro Province, on the north by El Azuay, and on the east by Zamora-Chinchipe. Founded on its present site in 1548 by Captain Alonso de Mercadillo the site had been previously moved and rebuilt from La...
, were Palta
Palta language
The extinct Palta language of the Ecuadorian Amazon is attested by only a few words: yumé 'water', xeme 'maize', capal 'fire', let 'wood' , and some toponyms. Based on this, Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño classified it as a Jivaroan language...
, Malacato, Rabona, Bolona, and Xiroa. Historical sources suggest these were closely related, and there is some evidence that Palta (see) was a Jivaroan language. Indeed, the name Xiroa may be a variant of Jivaro. Rabona is attested by a few words, some of which seem to be Jivaroan, but others of which appear to be Candoshí; since these are plant names, they say little about the classification of the language, and Andelaar (2004:397) leaves it unclassified. Bolona is essentially unattested.
North of the basin were Puruhá
Puruhá language
Puruhá is a poorly attested extinct language of the Marañón River basin in Ecuador which is difficult to classify, apart from being apparently related to Cañari, though it may have been Barbacoan....
(scarcely attested), Cañar (known primarily from characteristic place names), Panzaleo
Panzaleo language
Panzaleo is a poorly attested and unclassified indigenous American language that was spoken in the region of Quito until the 17th century.-Attestation:...
(sometimes classified as Paezan
Paezan languages
Paezan may be any of several language-family proposals of Colombia and Ecuador named after the Paez language.-Proposed genealogical relations:...
), Caranqui (until the 18th century, seemingly Barbacoan), and Pasto (Barbacoan). Apart possibly from Panzaleo, these languages have elements in common, such as a final syllable -pud and onsets mwe-, pwe-, bwe-. Those suggest that they may have been related, and possibly were all Barbacoan. Adelaar (2004:397) finds this more likely than a proposal that Puruhá and Cañar were Chimuan languages
Chimuan languages
Chimuan or Yuncan is a hypothetical small extinct language family of northern Peru and Ecuador .-Family division:Chimuan consisted of three attested languages:* Mochica * Cañar–Puruhá** Cañari ** Puruhá...
(see).
On the Peruvian side of the river, and further up in the Andes where it enters Peru, there were also numerous languages. Apart from Mochica
Mochica language
Mochica is a Chimuan language formerly spoken along the northwest coast of Peru and in an inland village. First documented in 1607, the language was widely spoken in the area during the 17th and early 18th century...
and Cholón
Cholon language
Cholón, also known as Seeptsá and Tsinganeses, is a recently extinct language of Peru.- Phonology :Due to the amateur Spanish pronunciation spellings used to transcribe Cholon, its sound inventory is uncertain...
, the languages of northern Peru are largely unrecorded; the attested Marañón languages are Patagón (Patagón de Perico), Bagua (Patagón de Bagua), Chacha (Chachapoya), Copallén, Tabancale, Chirino, and Sácata (Chillao).
Patagón
Patagón (Patagón de Perico, not to be confused with the Chon languagesChon languages
-External links:*Alain Fabre, 2005, Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos: CHON...
of Patagonia): Four words are recorded, tuná 'water', anás
'maize', viue 'firewood', coará 'sheep' (evidently the word for 'sloth
Sloth
Sloths are the six species of medium-sized mammals belonging to the families Megalonychidae and Bradypodidae , part of the order Pilosa and therefore related to armadillos and anteaters, which sport a similar set of specialized claws.They are arboreal residents of the jungles of Central and South...
'). These suggest that Patagón was a Cariban language, and therefore, like Aguaruna, from the Amazon (Adelaar 2004:405–406).
Bagua
Bagua (Patagón de Bagua) is attested by three words, tuna 'water', lancho 'maize', nacxé 'come here'. Tuna 'water' suggests it may be a Cariban language, like Patagón de Perico, but is insufficient evidence for classification.Chacha
Chacha is the name sometimes given to the language of the Chachapoya people. The Chachapoya, originally from the region of KuelapKuelap
The fortress of Kuelap or Cuélap , associated with the Chachapoyas culture, consists of massive exterior stone walls containing more than four hundred buildings. The structure, situated on a ridge overlooking the Utcubamba Valley in northern Peru, is roughly 600 meters in length and 110 meters in...
to the east of the Marañón, were conquered by the Inca shortly before the Spanish conquest, and many were deported after the Inca civil war. They sided with the Spanish, and achieved independence for a time, but were then deported again by the Spanish, where most died of introduced disease. There language is essentially unattested apart from toponyms and several hundred family names. Family names are mostly short and have been distorted through adaptation to Quechua; the only one which can be identified is Oc or Occ [ox], which according to oral history means 'puma' or 'bear' (Adelaar 2004:407).
Chachapoya toponyms ending in -gach(e), -gat(e), -gote are found near water. Between the town of Cajamarca
Cajamarca
Cajamarca may refer to:Colombia*Cajamarca, Tolima a town and municipality in Tolima DepartmentPeru* Cajamarca, city in Peru.* Cajamarca District, district in the Cajamarca province.* Cajamarca Province, province in the Cajamarca region....
and the Marañón river is a similar typonymic element, attested variously as -cat(e), -cot(e), -gat(e), -got(e), with -cat found further across a wider area of northern Peru. This may be the Cholón
Cholon language
Cholón, also known as Seeptsá and Tsinganeses, is a recently extinct language of Peru.- Phonology :Due to the amateur Spanish pronunciation spellings used to transcribe Cholon, its sound inventory is uncertain...
word for water; the place name Salcot or Zalcot is found three times in Cajamarca, as well as being the name of a Cholón village meaning 'black water'.
Copallén
Four words are attested from Capallén (Copallín): quiet [kjet] 'water', chumac 'maize', olaman 'firewood', ismare 'house'. The word for water resembles the typonymic element -cat. However, this is insufficient to identify Copallén as a Cholón language.Tabancale
Five words are recorded: yema 'water', moa 'maize', oyme 'firewood', lalaque [lalake] 'fire', tie 'house'. These do not correspond to any known language or family, so Tabancale is unclassified and potentially a language isolateLanguage isolate
A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical relationship with other languages; that is, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common with any other language. They are in effect language families consisting of a single...
.
Chirino
The Chirino were one of the principal peoples of the area. Based on the four words which were recorded, yungo 'water', yugato 'maize', xumás 'firewood', paxquiro [paʃˈkiɾo] 'grass', their language would appear to be related to Candoshi (Torero 1993, Adelaar 2004:406).Sácata
Three words of the language of Sácata (Zácata), apparently that of the Chillao people, are recorded: unga 'water', umague [umaɡe] 'maize', chichache 'fire'. Connections have been suggested with Candoshí (the word for water is similar to that of Chinino) and ArawakanArawakan languages
Macro-Arawakan is a proposed language family of South America and the Caribbean based on the Arawakan languages. Sometimes the proposal is called Arawakan, in which case the central family is called Maipurean....
, but the evidence is insufficient.