Archibald Macallum
Encyclopedia
Archibald Byron Macallum, FRS (April 7, 1858 – April 5, 1934) was a Canadian biochemist and founder of the National Research Council of Canada
. He was an influential figure in the development of Medical School of Toronto from a provincial school to a major institution. His scientific work centered on studies of ionic composition of cells and of blood.
and became a teacher after graduation. After saving money for several years he entered the University of Toronto
. There he was influenced by biology professor Ramsay Wright; at 22 he earned a B.A. and was awarded the medal in natural science. Over the next several years, he taught high school in Cornwall, Ontario
and continued scientific work under Wright's direction. In 1883, he became a lecturer in biology at the University of Toronto and started work on a medical degree, studying both with Wright and with H. Newell Martin of Johns Hopkins University
. In 1888 he earned a Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins, and two years later completed a medical degree from the University of Toronto; he then became the first chair of physiology
at Toronto.
In his first years as physiology chair at the University of Toronto, Macallum and several other biologists trained by Wright (anatomy chair James McMurrich
and pathology professor J. J. Mackenzie) fought to replace the Toronto medical school's traditional medical education with a curriculum based on biological science. They had largely succeeded in this by 1908, when Macallum became Chair of Biochemistry, a newly-created position. In 1917, he left academia to organize the National Research Council
. In 1920 he returned to chair the new Department of Biochemistry at McGill University
, where he stayed until retirement in 1928.
in cell nuclei
contains iron
, and in his early years at the University of Toronto he adapted measurement methods for a number of ions (chloride, potassium and phosphorus) for use with tissue and cell samples. Using these methods, he found that some chemicals are localized within cells, e.g., being present in the cytoplasm
but not the nucleus. In 1906, he was recognized for this work by election to the Royal Society
.
Building on his ion measurement work, Macallum's subsequent long-term research focused on the ionic content of blood
and other biological fluids. He found that in many animals, ions of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium occur in close proportion to the ionic content of seawater
, providing a strong argument for the marine origins of land vertebrates. Macallum argued that the vertebrate blood, with a total ion concentration of about one-third of sea water, indicates that vertebrates left the sea in the Silurian
period or before, when the ion concentration of the sea was much lower. Macallum's series of experiments and arguments became a central part of the broader field of biochemical evolution in the first half of the 20th century, which attempted to apply biochemical work to problems in evolution and general biology.
National Research Council of Canada
The National Research Council is an agency of the Government of Canada which conducts scientific research and development.- History :...
. He was an influential figure in the development of Medical School of Toronto from a provincial school to a major institution. His scientific work centered on studies of ionic composition of cells and of blood.
Education and academic career
Macallum was born in Belmont, Canada West, the son of a Scottish immigrant and one of twelve children. He grew up speaking Gaelic at home, learning English at school. He attended high school in London, OntarioLondon, Ontario
London is a city in Southwestern Ontario, Canada, situated along the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor. The city has a population of 352,395, and the metropolitan area has a population of 457,720, according to the 2006 Canadian census; the metro population in 2009 was estimated at 489,274. The city...
and became a teacher after graduation. After saving money for several years he entered the University of Toronto
University of Toronto
The University of Toronto is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, situated on the grounds that surround Queen's Park. It was founded by royal charter in 1827 as King's College, the first institution of higher learning in Upper Canada...
. There he was influenced by biology professor Ramsay Wright; at 22 he earned a B.A. and was awarded the medal in natural science. Over the next several years, he taught high school in Cornwall, Ontario
Cornwall, Ontario
Cornwall is a city in Eastern Ontario, Canada and the seat of the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry, Ontario. Cornwall is Ontario's easternmost city, located on the St...
and continued scientific work under Wright's direction. In 1883, he became a lecturer in biology at the University of Toronto and started work on a medical degree, studying both with Wright and with H. Newell Martin of Johns Hopkins University
Johns Hopkins University
The Johns Hopkins University, commonly referred to as Johns Hopkins, JHU, or simply Hopkins, is a private research university based in Baltimore, Maryland, United States...
. In 1888 he earned a Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins, and two years later completed a medical degree from the University of Toronto; he then became the first chair of physiology
Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
at Toronto.
In his first years as physiology chair at the University of Toronto, Macallum and several other biologists trained by Wright (anatomy chair James McMurrich
J. Playfair McMurrich
James Playfair McMurrich was a Canadian zoologist and academic.Born in Toronto, the son of John McMurrich, McMurrich received a M.A. from the University of Toronto in 1881 and a Ph.D...
and pathology professor J. J. Mackenzie) fought to replace the Toronto medical school's traditional medical education with a curriculum based on biological science. They had largely succeeded in this by 1908, when Macallum became Chair of Biochemistry, a newly-created position. In 1917, he left academia to organize the National Research Council
National Research Council of Canada
The National Research Council is an agency of the Government of Canada which conducts scientific research and development.- History :...
. In 1920 he returned to chair the new Department of Biochemistry at McGill University
McGill University
Mohammed Fathy is a public research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The university bears the name of James McGill, a prominent Montreal merchant from Glasgow, Scotland, whose bequest formed the beginning of the university...
, where he stayed until retirement in 1928.
Scientific work
Most of Macallum's scientific work involved measurements of small concentrations of salts and ions in biological fluids. In 1901, he showed that the chromatinChromatin
Chromatin is the combination of DNA and proteins that make up the contents of the nucleus of a cell. The primary functions of chromatin are; to package DNA into a smaller volume to fit in the cell, to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis and prevent DNA damage, and to control gene...
in cell nuclei
Cell nucleus
In cell biology, the nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these...
contains iron
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
, and in his early years at the University of Toronto he adapted measurement methods for a number of ions (chloride, potassium and phosphorus) for use with tissue and cell samples. Using these methods, he found that some chemicals are localized within cells, e.g., being present in the cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a small gel-like substance residing between the cell membrane holding all the cell's internal sub-structures , except for the nucleus. All the contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms are contained within the cytoplasm...
but not the nucleus. In 1906, he was recognized for this work by election to the Royal Society
Royal Society
The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London"...
.
Building on his ion measurement work, Macallum's subsequent long-term research focused on the ionic content of blood
Blood
Blood is a specialized bodily fluid in animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells....
and other biological fluids. He found that in many animals, ions of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium occur in close proportion to the ionic content of seawater
Seawater
Seawater is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% . This means that every kilogram of seawater has approximately of dissolved salts . The average density of seawater at the ocean surface is 1.025 g/ml...
, providing a strong argument for the marine origins of land vertebrates. Macallum argued that the vertebrate blood, with a total ion concentration of about one-third of sea water, indicates that vertebrates left the sea in the Silurian
Silurian
The Silurian is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Ordovician Period, about 443.7 ± 1.5 Mya , to the beginning of the Devonian Period, about 416.0 ± 2.8 Mya . As with other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the period's start and end are well identified, but the...
period or before, when the ion concentration of the sea was much lower. Macallum's series of experiments and arguments became a central part of the broader field of biochemical evolution in the first half of the 20th century, which attempted to apply biochemical work to problems in evolution and general biology.