Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il
Encyclopedia
Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il was an Imam
of Yemen
who ruled the country in the years 1644-1676. He belonged to the Qasimid family, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. His rule saw the greatest territorial extension of the Yemeni state.
. In 1644 his elder brother al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
died. A fraternal strife broke out, as several brothers competed for the imamate
. In the end, the other brothers submitted to Isma'il. In Zaidi sources, his reign is portrayed in exceedingly positive terms: Yemen was restored to prosperity, as the farmers enjoyed excellent harvests. His rule was considered just and incorruptible. Nevertheless, a dispute arose between the imam and the various ulema
in 1648 over taxation policy. As Isms'il managed to uphold public order in the deeply localized and fractionalized Yemeni society, merchants ventured to visit Yemen from other countries. The coffee trade that went via Mocha
had been going on for some time, and gave the imam's government increased revenues.
area gave the imam an excuse to send a sizeable army into the Hadramaut, in 1654. The Yafa
tribesmen submitted, as did the Kathiri sultan. A further expedition in 1658 renewed the suzerainty of the imam in an area as far east as Dhofar
. However, the conquest of Hadramaut resulted in a military confrontation with Sultan bin Saif, the sultan of Oman
. Being in command of the seas in these waters, the Omanis were able to raid Yemen. Insecurity at sea led to a decrease of import goods to the Yemeni seaports.
producer of the world made it a vital link in the Indian Ocean
trading system. Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il's reign saw a number of diplomatic ties with other powers of the Indian Ocean
world. An Ethiopian
embassy visited the imam in 1646, and a Yemeni return visit took place in the following year. With Mughal India there were likewise friendly contacts. Surat
on the Indian west coast was the principal trading partner of Yemen at this time. The Ottoman Empire
, which had given up its power in Yemen in 1635, planned a renewed attack in 1674; however, this was abandoned for fear of Portuguese
power.
simplicity; he sew and sold caps for his subsistence, and his household consisted of one single wife and a female slave. Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il died in 1676, and a dispute arose between two of his nephews. Of these, al-Mahdi Ahmad
finally succeeded in the imamate.
Imam
An imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the worship leader of a mosque and the Muslim community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads Islamic worship services. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have a religious question...
of Yemen
Yemen
The Republic of Yemen , commonly known as Yemen , is a country located in the Middle East, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east....
who ruled the country in the years 1644-1676. He belonged to the Qasimid family, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. His rule saw the greatest territorial extension of the Yemeni state.
Early reign
Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il was the son of the founder of the Qasimid imamate, al-Mansur al-QasimAl-Mansur al-Qasim
Al-Mansur al-Qasim , with the cognomen al-Kabir , was an Imam of Yemen, who commenced the struggle to liberate Yemen from the Ottoman occupiers...
. In 1644 his elder brother al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad was an Imam of Yemen who belonged to the Qasimid family, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad...
died. A fraternal strife broke out, as several brothers competed for the imamate
Imamate
The word Imamate is an Arabic word with an English language suffix meaning leadership. Its use in theology is confined to Islam.-Theological usage:...
. In the end, the other brothers submitted to Isma'il. In Zaidi sources, his reign is portrayed in exceedingly positive terms: Yemen was restored to prosperity, as the farmers enjoyed excellent harvests. His rule was considered just and incorruptible. Nevertheless, a dispute arose between the imam and the various ulema
Ulema
Ulama , also spelt ulema, refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. They are best known as the arbiters of shari‘a law...
in 1648 over taxation policy. As Isms'il managed to uphold public order in the deeply localized and fractionalized Yemeni society, merchants ventured to visit Yemen from other countries. The coffee trade that went via Mocha
Mocha, Yemen
Mocha or Mokha is a port city on the Red Sea coast of Yemen. Until it was eclipsed in the 19th century by Aden and Hodeida, Mocha was the principal port for Yemen's capital Sana'a.-Overview:...
had been going on for some time, and gave the imam's government increased revenues.
Conquest of Hadramaut
The authority of al-Mutawakkil Isma'il expanded eastwards along the South Arabian coast. Aden had been conquered by Yemeni forces in 1644. A throne struggle in the KathiriKathiri
Kathiri was a sultanate in the Hadhramaut region of the southern Arabian Peninsula, in what is now officially considered part of Yemen and the Dhofar region of Oman....
area gave the imam an excuse to send a sizeable army into the Hadramaut, in 1654. The Yafa
Yafa
Yafa is a state in southern Yemen. Situated northeast of the city of Aden, it is composed of Upper Yafa and Lower Yafa....
tribesmen submitted, as did the Kathiri sultan. A further expedition in 1658 renewed the suzerainty of the imam in an area as far east as Dhofar
Dhofar
The Dhofar region lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen. Its mountainous area covers and has a population of 215,960 as of the 2003 census. The largest town in the region is Salalah. Historically, it was the chief source of frankincense in the world. However, its frankincense...
. However, the conquest of Hadramaut resulted in a military confrontation with Sultan bin Saif, the sultan of Oman
Oman
Oman , officially called the Sultanate of Oman , is an Arab state in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by the United Arab Emirates to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west, and Yemen to the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the...
. Being in command of the seas in these waters, the Omanis were able to raid Yemen. Insecurity at sea led to a decrease of import goods to the Yemeni seaports.
Diplomatic relations
Yemen in the 17th century was not a very outward-looking society, but its role as the virtually sole coffeeCoffee
Coffee is a brewed beverage with a dark,init brooo acidic flavor prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant, colloquially called coffee beans. The beans are found in coffee cherries, which grow on trees cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial Latin America, Southeast Asia,...
producer of the world made it a vital link in the Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
trading system. Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il's reign saw a number of diplomatic ties with other powers of the Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
world. An Ethiopian
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
embassy visited the imam in 1646, and a Yemeni return visit took place in the following year. With Mughal India there were likewise friendly contacts. Surat
Surat
Surat , also known as Suryapur, is the commercial capital city of the Indian state of Gujarat. Surat is India's Eighth most populous city and Ninth-most populous urban agglomeration. It is also administrative capital of Surat district and one of the fastest growing cities in India. The city proper...
on the Indian west coast was the principal trading partner of Yemen at this time. The Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, which had given up its power in Yemen in 1635, planned a renewed attack in 1674; however, this was abandoned for fear of Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
power.
Interior policy
Although he was the most resourceful of the Qasimid line, al-Mutawakkil Isma'il had to contend with the deep localism persisting in the Yemeni society, in particular among the highland tribes. Some tribes were not taxed, but on the contrary received stipends to keep quiet. This was a practice that prevailed until the 20th century. The imam himself is reputed to have lived a life of SpartanSparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
simplicity; he sew and sold caps for his subsistence, and his household consisted of one single wife and a female slave. Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il died in 1676, and a dispute arose between two of his nephews. Of these, al-Mahdi Ahmad
Al-Mahdi Ahmad
Al-Mahdi Ahmad was an Imam of Yemen, who ruled in 1676-1681. He belonged to the Qasimid family that was descended from the Prophet Muhammad.-Struggle for the imamate:...
finally succeeded in the imamate.