Phytoalexins are antimicrobial

Antimicrobial

An anti-microbial is a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, or protozoans. Antimicrobial drugs either kill microbes or prevent the growth of microbes...

 substances synthesized de novo by plants that accumulate rapidly at areas of incompatible pathogen infection. They are broad spectrum inhibitors and are chemically diverse with different types characteristic of particular plant species. Phytoalexins tend to fall into several classes including terpenoid

Terpenoid

The terpenoids , sometimes called isoprenoids, are a large and diverse class of naturally occurring organic chemicals similar to terpenes, derived from five-carbon isoprene units assembled and modified in thousands of ways. Most are multicyclic structures that differ from one another not only in...

s, glyco

Glycomics

Glycomics is the comprehensive study of glycomes , including genetic, physiologic, pathologic, and other aspects. Glycomics "is the systematic study of all glycan structures of a given cell type or organism" and is a subset of glycobiology...

steroid

Steroid

A steroid is a type of organic compound that contains a characteristic arrangement of four cycloalkane rings that are joined to each other. Examples of steroids include the dietary fat cholesterol, the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone, and the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone.The core...

s and alkaloid

Alkaloid

Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...

s; however, researchers often find it convenient to extend the definition to include all phytochemicals that are part of the plant's defensive arsenal.

Function

Phytoalexins produced in plants act as toxins to the attacking organism. They may puncture the cell wall

Cell wall

The cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to...

, delay maturation, disrupt metabolism or prevent reproduction of the pathogen in question. Their importance in plant defense is indicated by an increase in susceptibility of plant tissue to infection when phytoalexin biosynthesis is inhibited. Mutants incapable of phytoalexin production exhibit more extensive pathogen colonization as compared to wild type. As such, host-specific pathogens capable of degrading phytoalexins are more virulent than those unable to do so.

When a plant cell recognizes particles from damaged cell

Cell (biology)

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....

s or particles from the pathogen, the plant launches a two-pronged resistance: a general short-term response and a delayed long-term specific response.

As part of the induced resistance, the short-term response, the plant deploys reactive oxygen species

Reactive oxygen species

Reactive oxygen species are chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen. Examples include oxygen ions and peroxides. Reactive oxygen species are highly reactive due to the presence of unpaired valence shell electrons....

 such as superoxide

Superoxide

A superoxide, also known by the obsolete name hyperoxide, is a compound that possesses the superoxide anion with the chemical formula O2−. The systematic name of the anion is dioxide. It is important as the product of the one-electron reduction of dioxygen O2, which occurs widely in nature...

 and hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest peroxide and an oxidizer. Hydrogen peroxide is a clear liquid, slightly more viscous than water. In dilute solution, it appears colorless. With its oxidizing properties, hydrogen peroxide is often used as a bleach or cleaning agent...

 to kill invading cells. In pathogen interactions, the common short-term response is the hypersensitive response

Hypersensitive response

The hypersensitive response is a mechanism, used by plants, to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens. The HR is characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection. The HR serves to restrict the growth and spread of pathogens to other parts of...

, in which cells surrounding the site of infection are signaled to undergo apoptosis

Apoptosis

Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation...

, or programmed cell death, in order to prevent the spread of the pathogen to the rest of the plant.

Long-term resistance, or systemic acquired resistance (SAR), involves communication of the damaged tissue with the rest of the plant using plant hormones such as jasmonic acid

Jasmonic acid

Jasmonic acid is derived from the fatty acid linolenic acid. It is a member of the jasmonate class of plant hormones. It is biosynthesized from linolenic acid by the octadecanoid pathway....

, ethylene

Ethylene

Ethylene is a gaseous organic compound with the formula . It is the simplest alkene . Because it contains a carbon-carbon double bond, ethylene is classified as an unsaturated hydrocarbon. Ethylene is widely used in industry and is also a plant hormone...

, abscisic acid

Abscisic acid

Abscisic acid , also known as abscisin II and dormin, is a plant hormone. ABA functions in many plant developmental processes, including bud dormancy. It is degraded by the enzyme -abscisic acid 8'-hydroxylase.-Function:...

 or salicylic acid

Salicylic acid

Salicylic acid is a monohydroxybenzoic acid, a type of phenolic acid and a beta hydroxy acid. This colorless crystalline organic acid is widely used in organic synthesis and functions as a plant hormone. It is derived from the metabolism of salicin...

. The reception of the signal leads to global changes within the plant, which induce genes that protect from further pathogen intrusion, including enzymes involved in the production of phytoalexins. Often, if jasmonates or ethylene (both gaseous hormones) is released from the wounded tissue, neighboring plants also manufacture phytoalexins in response. For herbivores, common vectors for disease, these and other wound response aromatics seem to act as a warning that the plant is no longer edible. Also, in accordance with the old adage, "an enemy of my enemy is my friend," the aromatics may alert natural enemies of the plant invaders to the presence thereof.

Recent research

Allixin

Allixin

Allixin is a phytoallexin found in garlic bulbs. It was first isolated and characterized in 1989. When garlic is stored for long periods of time, it can form visible accumulations of crystalline allixin on its surface, particularly in areas where tissue has become necrotic...

 (3-hydroxy-5-methoxy-6-methyl-2-pentyl-4H-pyran-4-one), a non-sulfur-containing compound having a γ-pyrone

Pyrone

Pyrones or pyranones are a class of cyclic chemical compounds. They contain an unsaturated six membered ring containing one oxygen atom and a ketone functional group. There are two isomers denoted as 2-pyrone and 4-pyrone. The 2-pyrone structure is found in nature as part of the coumarin ring...

 skeleton structure, was the first compound isolated from garlic

Garlic

Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, and rakkyo. Dating back over 6,000 years, garlic is native to central Asia, and has long been a staple in the Mediterranean region, as well as a frequent...

 as a phytoalexin, a product induced in plants by continuous stress. This compound has been shown to have unique biological properties, such as anti-oxidative effects, anti-microbial effects, anti-tumor promoting effects, inhibition of aflatoxin

Aflatoxin

Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a fungus, the most notable ones being Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins are toxic and among the most carcinogenic substances known...

 B2 DNA

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...

 binding, and neurotrophic effects. Allixin showed an anti-tumor promoting effect in vivo, inhibiting skin tumor

Tumor

A tumor or tumour is commonly used as a synonym for a neoplasm that appears enlarged in size. Tumor is not synonymous with cancer...

 formation by TPA

12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate

12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate , also commonly known as tetradecanoylphorbol acetate, tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate, and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate , is diester of phorbol and a potent tumor promoter often employed in biomedical research to activate the signal transduction enzyme protein...

 in DMBA

7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene

7,12-Dimethylbenzanthracene is an immunosuppressor and a powerful organ-specific laboratory carcinogen. Also known as 7,12-dimethylbenz[α]anthracene or DMBA, this substance is widely used in many research laboratories studying cancer. DMBA serves as a tumor initiator by making necessary mutations...

 initiated mice. Herein, allixin and/or its analogs may be expected useful compounds for cancer prevention or chemotherapy agents for other diseases.

See also

• Resveratrol
  Resveratrol
  Resveratrol is a stilbenoid, a type of natural phenol, and a phytoalexin produced naturally by several plants when under attack by pathogens such as bacteria or fungi....
  
  
• Allicin
• Garlic
  Garlic
  Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, and rakkyo. Dating back over 6,000 years, garlic is native to central Asia, and has long been a staple in the Mediterranean region, as well as a frequent...
  
  
• Pterocarpan
  Pterocarpan
  Pterocarpans are derivatives of isoflavonoids found in the Fabaceae family. It is a group of compounds which can be described as benzo-pyrano-furano-benzenes Pterocarpans are derivatives of isoflavonoids found in the Fabaceae family. It is a group of compounds which can be described as...
  
  
• Pterostilbene
  Pterostilbene
  Pterostilbene is a stilbenoid chemically related to resveratrol and is found in blueberries and grapes. It belongs to the group of phytoalexins, agents produced by plants to fight infections. Based on animal studies it is thought to exhibit anti-cancer, anti-hypercholesterolemia,...
  
  
• Plant defense against herbivory
  Plant defense against herbivory
  Plant defense against herbivory or host-plant resistance describes a range of adaptations evolved by plants which improve their survival and reproduction by reducing the impact of herbivores. Plants use several strategies to defend against damage caused by herbivores...
  
  

External links

• Signals Regulating Multiple Responses to Wounding and Herbivores Guy L. de Bruxelles and Michael R Roberts
• The Myriad Plant Responses to Herbivores Linda L. Walling
• THE CHEMICAL DEFENSES OF HIGHER PLANTS GERALD A. ROSENTHAL
• Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR) Against Pathogens in the Context of Induced Plant Defences MARTIN HEIL
• Notes from the Underground Donald R. Strong and Donald A. Phillips
• Relationships Among Plants, Insect Herbivores, Pathogens, and Parasitoids Expressed by Secondary Metabolites Loretta L. Mannix