Linnaean Society of New England
Encyclopedia
Linnaean Society of New England (1814–1822) was established in Boston
, Massachusetts
, to promote natural history
. The society organized a natural history museum, and also arranged lectures and excursions for its members. In 1817 it became involved in the Gloucester sea serpent
debate. Although the society itself did not last, its initial energy and rapid accomplishments helped shape the growing field of natural history in the early years of the United States.
." Founders included Bigelow; Walter Channing; Ezekiel D. Cushing; James Freeman Dana
; George Hayward; LaFayette Perkins; Octavius Pickering; William Smith Shaw; Nathaniel Tucker; John Ware; and John White Webster
. John Davis served as president. "Meetings were held weekly, on Saturday evenings. The members were divided into 6 classes: viz., for minerals; for plants and vegetables; for quadrupeds and birds; for fishes, reptiles, and serpents; for insects; and for vermes, corals, madrepores, &c." Initially, the society had a room "in Joy's Buildings" in Boston; they soon moved to Boylston Market
. In January 1815, the society agreed to call itself the "Linnaean Society of New England" (instead of its previous name, "New-England Society for the Promotion of Natural History.") Eventually, the society officially incorporated, in June 1820.
Through the years, others associated with the society included: Thomas G. Chase; Parker Cleaveland
; Samuel Luther Dana
; Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn
; Oliver Fiske; Francis Calley Gray; Samuel Latham Mitchill
; Nathan Read
; William J. Walker; and others.
to be 3,450 feet; its summit composed of micaceous schist
us. The Ascutney
3,106 feet, its summit of granite. The White Mountains
6,230 feet, the summit of gneiss
, the sides micaceous schistus. The limit of forest trees at the height of 4,423 feet. These heights were ascertained by barometrical observations. They found few interesting minerals, but discovered 3 or 4 new species of plants."
It also was hoped that locals at home would look sharp for "the birds, fish, &c. the common, and especially the rare, which are now and then brought to a town for sale. Many valuable articles have already been obtained in this manner, and by offering a trifling pecuniary inducement, individuals might be enabled to procure others which are not used for food, but which are very interesting to the naturalist." Indeed, "persons residing in the interiour of the country will confer an obligation on the society, by sending any ... objects which may appear to them curious or unusual. ... Printed directions for preserving birds, fishes, quadrupeds, plants, &c. may be received, gratis, at the Boston Atheneum, Tremont-street."
A notice in the local paper in July, 1820, advised the public that donations of natural history specimens could be dropped off at a drug store on Central Street. "The friends of this institution are informed that its members will receive and preserve specimens in the various departments of history, and for the convenience of those who have specimens to present, Mr. Thomas G. Chase, druggist, no.7, Central-street, has obligingly offered to receive them at his store. A note left with him, stating where specimens intended for the museum are deposited, will be duly attended to."
. Commodore Stewart, of the frigate Constitution
presented 2 living tigers. These tigers were somehow lost. ... A living bear from Commodore Chauncey
; Chinese insects from B.P. Tilden; corals from Dr. Swift; minerals from Vesuvius; birds from France; birds from Africa; a series of English game-brids; a caribou; and, above all...'the most interesting and valuable specimen the country affords; namely, a large species of deer, commonly called the elk.'"
The museum itself, located in Boylston Hall
, was open to the public: "strangers and others can have free access on application to any member or officer of the society." According to a contemporary description:
and Cape Ann
, Massachusetts. Members of the society circulated systematic questionnaires, and wrote up a scientifically-informed report, published the same year. The report included information on Erik Pontoppidan
's Norway sea snake, and on a smaller Cape Ann sea animal actually examined, "a remarkable serpent, supposed to be the progeny of the great serpent." To accommodate its findings the society established a new genus: Scoliophis Atlanticus. The smaller specimen was exhibited publicly.
At the time, controversy raged over the society's report. For example: "With respect to the little animal which was exhibited by Capt. Beach, and on which a committee of the Boston Linnaean Society established a new genus, under the imposing title of Scoliophis, concluding it to be the young of the sea-serpent, I understand that a celebrated French naturalist, now in Philadelphia, has ascertained that it is a common land snake of the U. States, of a harmless species, and that the undulations of the spine were merely the effect of disease." The editor of the Philadelphia newspaper that had printed this item also published his own remarks: "the evidence of the existence of the Sea-Monster is conclusive and irresistable." Eventually, experts concluded that the Linnaean Society's findings were incorrect. What had been thought to be a new species was in fact a black snake – Coluber constrictor
.
, the proprietor of the New-England Museum
." The remainder of the collection was offered to the Boston Athenaeum, which declined; and then to Harvard College, which accepted the offer and its terms. However, it soon became clear that Harvard would not fulfill the terms of the agreement. In 1830 the former society's specimens were reclaimed (--"a few empty glazed cases, or containing dilapidated monkeys and birds"--) and given to the newly formed Boston Society of Natural History
.
Boston
Boston is the capital of and largest city in Massachusetts, and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England" for its economic and cultural impact on the entire New England region. The city proper had...
, Massachusetts
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
, to promote natural history
Natural history
Natural history is the scientific research of plants or animals, leaning more towards observational rather than experimental methods of study, and encompasses more research published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the natural sciences, natural history is the systematic study...
. The society organized a natural history museum, and also arranged lectures and excursions for its members. In 1817 it became involved in the Gloucester sea serpent
Sea serpent
A sea serpent or sea dragon is a type of sea monster either wholly or partly serpentine.Sightings of sea serpents have been reported for hundreds of years, and continue to be claimed today. Cryptozoologist Bruce Champagne identified more than 1,200 purported sea serpent sightings...
debate. Although the society itself did not last, its initial energy and rapid accomplishments helped shape the growing field of natural history in the early years of the United States.
History
The society began December 8, 1814, "at the room of Dr. Jacob BigelowJacob Bigelow
Jacob Bigelow was an American medical doctor, botanist, and architect of Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.-Biography:...
." Founders included Bigelow; Walter Channing; Ezekiel D. Cushing; James Freeman Dana
James Freeman Dana
James Freeman Dana was a United States chemist.-Biography:He graduated from Harvard in 1813, and from the medical school in 1817. He studied with Dr...
; George Hayward; LaFayette Perkins; Octavius Pickering; William Smith Shaw; Nathaniel Tucker; John Ware; and John White Webster
John White Webster
John White Webster , born in Boston, Massachusetts, was a professor of chemistry and geology at Harvard Medical College...
. John Davis served as president. "Meetings were held weekly, on Saturday evenings. The members were divided into 6 classes: viz., for minerals; for plants and vegetables; for quadrupeds and birds; for fishes, reptiles, and serpents; for insects; and for vermes, corals, madrepores, &c." Initially, the society had a room "in Joy's Buildings" in Boston; they soon moved to Boylston Market
Boylston Market
Boylston Market , designed by architect Charles Bulfinch, was located in Boston, Massachusetts, on the corner of Boylston and Washington Streets. Boylston Hall occupied the third floor of the building, and functioned as a performance and meeting space.-History:The Boylston Market Association...
. In January 1815, the society agreed to call itself the "Linnaean Society of New England" (instead of its previous name, "New-England Society for the Promotion of Natural History.") Eventually, the society officially incorporated, in June 1820.
Through the years, others associated with the society included: Thomas G. Chase; Parker Cleaveland
Parker Cleaveland
Parker Cleaveland was an American geologist and mineralogist, born in Rowley, Massachusetts.He was identified with the early progress of the natural sciences...
; Samuel Luther Dana
Samuel Luther Dana
Samuel Luther Dana was a United States chemist.-Biography:...
; Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn
Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn
Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn was an American lawyer, author, statesman and soldier...
; Oliver Fiske; Francis Calley Gray; Samuel Latham Mitchill
Samuel Latham Mitchill
Samuel Latham Mitchill was an American physician, naturalist, and politician from New York. He was born in Hempstead, New York...
; Nathan Read
Nathan Read
Nathan Read was a United States Representative from Massachusetts. Born in Warren, he attended the common schools and graduated from Harvard University in 1781. He taught school in Beverly and Salem and was elected a tutor in Harvard University, where he continued until 1787...
; William J. Walker; and others.
Excursions
In addition to meetings, the society organized relevant excursions. In the summer of 1816, members travelled to the mountains in New Hampshire and Vermont. "They ascertained the height of the MonadnockMount Monadnock
Mount Monadnock, or Grand Monadnock, is the most prominent New England mountain peak south of the White Mountains and east of the Massachusetts Berkshires, and is the highest point in Cheshire County, New Hampshire...
to be 3,450 feet; its summit composed of micaceous schist
Schist
The schists constitute a group of medium-grade metamorphic rocks, chiefly notable for the preponderance of lamellar minerals such as micas, chlorite, talc, hornblende, graphite, and others. Quartz often occurs in drawn-out grains to such an extent that a particular form called quartz schist is...
us. The Ascutney
Mount Ascutney
Mount Ascutney, is a 3144 foot monadnock located in southern Vermont. It is not the highest peak in Windsor County, Vermont, however, that honor falling to Gillespie Peak to the west. Particularly noteworthy about Ascutney are its granite outcrops, one of which, near its peak, serves as a...
3,106 feet, its summit of granite. The White Mountains
White Mountains (New Hampshire)
The White Mountains are a mountain range covering about a quarter of the state of New Hampshire and a small portion of western Maine in the United States. Part of the Appalachian Mountains, they are considered the most rugged mountains in New England...
6,230 feet, the summit of gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss is a common and widely distributed type of rock formed by high-grade regional metamorphic processes from pre-existing formations that were originally either igneous or sedimentary rocks.-Etymology:...
, the sides micaceous schistus. The limit of forest trees at the height of 4,423 feet. These heights were ascertained by barometrical observations. They found few interesting minerals, but discovered 3 or 4 new species of plants."
Museum
Shortly after the formation of the society, it shared with the public its plans to create a museum of natural history. "The society, unwilling to raise expectations which might not be realized, or to announce objects beyond their power to effect, have chosen for the present to confine their views principally to the collection of a regular and systematick Museum of Natural History, in which Animals, Plants, and Minerals shall be kept in a good state of preservation, designated by their scientific and ordinary names, and arranged according to their classes and natural affinities. It is hoped that a collection thus formed, will be useful to students, and may hereafter be instrumental in throwing some light on the natural history of this country."Solicitations for the collection
The collection of the museum grew by donations from members and supporters. It was hoped that travellers abroad would bring back specimens. Society members "particularly request masters of vessels and other gentlemen bound on sea voyages, to preserve for them such curiosities as may fall in their way."" In addition, the new society wrote to their contacts abroad. Society members "have ... opened a considerable correspondence with a view to obtaining foreign specimens. The chief objects which they are desirous to possess are minerals, plants, and fresh seeds of rare species, quadrupeds, birds in pairs with their nests and eggs, fishes, serpents, insects, shells, coral, &c.""It also was hoped that locals at home would look sharp for "the birds, fish, &c. the common, and especially the rare, which are now and then brought to a town for sale. Many valuable articles have already been obtained in this manner, and by offering a trifling pecuniary inducement, individuals might be enabled to procure others which are not used for food, but which are very interesting to the naturalist." Indeed, "persons residing in the interiour of the country will confer an obligation on the society, by sending any ... objects which may appear to them curious or unusual. ... Printed directions for preserving birds, fishes, quadrupeds, plants, &c. may be received, gratis, at the Boston Atheneum, Tremont-street."
A notice in the local paper in July, 1820, advised the public that donations of natural history specimens could be dropped off at a drug store on Central Street. "The friends of this institution are informed that its members will receive and preserve specimens in the various departments of history, and for the convenience of those who have specimens to present, Mr. Thomas G. Chase, druggist, no.7, Central-street, has obligingly offered to receive them at his store. A note left with him, stating where specimens intended for the museum are deposited, will be duly attended to."
Specimens obtained
"Among the donations, the first one specified was a likeness of Mr. Roscoe, presented by Mr.Francis BoottFrancis Boott
Francis Boott was an American physician and botanist who was resident in Great Britain from 1820.- Biography :Boott was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the brother of Kirk Boott, one of the founders of Lowell, Massachusetts...
. Commodore Stewart, of the frigate Constitution
USS Constitution
USS Constitution is a wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy. Named by President George Washington after the Constitution of the United States of America, she is the world's oldest floating commissioned naval vessel...
presented 2 living tigers. These tigers were somehow lost. ... A living bear from Commodore Chauncey
Isaac Chauncey
Isaac Chauncey was an officer in the United States Navy.-Biography:Chauncey, born in Black Rock, Connecticut, 20 February 1779, was appointed a Lieutenant in the Navy from 17 September 1798...
; Chinese insects from B.P. Tilden; corals from Dr. Swift; minerals from Vesuvius; birds from France; birds from Africa; a series of English game-brids; a caribou; and, above all...'the most interesting and valuable specimen the country affords; namely, a large species of deer, commonly called the elk.'"
The museum itself, located in Boylston Hall
Boylston Market
Boylston Market , designed by architect Charles Bulfinch, was located in Boston, Massachusetts, on the corner of Boylston and Washington Streets. Boylston Hall occupied the third floor of the building, and functioned as a performance and meeting space.-History:The Boylston Market Association...
, was open to the public: "strangers and others can have free access on application to any member or officer of the society." According to a contemporary description:
"Among the quadrupeds may be mentioned the Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Catamount, Wolf, Bear, Stag, Sea-Elephant, and a great number of smaller species, principally native. The birds amount to nearly three hundred in number, and consist of elegant species in every order, and of every size, from the Albatross and the large Sea-Eagle of North America, to the minutest Humming birds of Cayenne. A majority of the birds are natives of this country, but there are many beautiful species from tropical countries... The fishes are prepared in uniform half specimens fixed upon a white ground, and afford a fine display, being sufficiently numerous to nearly cover one end of the hall. The insects and shells amounting to some thousands in number, include many rare and elegant species, both native and foreign, and among them may be mentioned, a fine collection of insects from China, and of shells from the Isle of France and Calcutta. The mineralogical specimens already fill four large cabinets. ... The whole collection, with the exception of the fishes and a few other specimens, have been inclosed at a great expence, in mahogany cases with glass fronts. ... The specimens have been prepared by members of the society, and by an artist employed for the purpose [i.e. M. Duchesne].
Sea serpent
In 1817 the society investigated reports of sightings of an extraordinary "sea serpent" north of Boston, around GloucesterGloucester, Massachusetts
Gloucester is a city on Cape Ann in Essex County, Massachusetts, in the United States. It is part of Massachusetts' North Shore. The population was 28,789 at the 2010 U.S. Census...
and Cape Ann
Cape Ann
Cape Ann is a rocky cape in northeastern Massachusetts on the Atlantic Ocean. The cape is located approximately 30 miles northeast of Boston and forms the northern edge of Massachusetts Bay. Cape Ann includes the city of Gloucester, and the towns of Essex, Manchester-by-the-Sea, and...
, Massachusetts. Members of the society circulated systematic questionnaires, and wrote up a scientifically-informed report, published the same year. The report included information on Erik Pontoppidan
Erik Pontoppidan
Erik Pontoppidan was a Danish author, bishop, historian and antiquary, born in Aarhus August 24, 1698; died in Copenhagen December 20, 1764. He was educated in Fredericia , after which he was a private tutor in Norway, and then studied in Holland, and in London and Oxford, England...
's Norway sea snake, and on a smaller Cape Ann sea animal actually examined, "a remarkable serpent, supposed to be the progeny of the great serpent." To accommodate its findings the society established a new genus: Scoliophis Atlanticus. The smaller specimen was exhibited publicly.
At the time, controversy raged over the society's report. For example: "With respect to the little animal which was exhibited by Capt. Beach, and on which a committee of the Boston Linnaean Society established a new genus, under the imposing title of Scoliophis, concluding it to be the young of the sea-serpent, I understand that a celebrated French naturalist, now in Philadelphia, has ascertained that it is a common land snake of the U. States, of a harmless species, and that the undulations of the spine were merely the effect of disease." The editor of the Philadelphia newspaper that had printed this item also published his own remarks: "the evidence of the existence of the Sea-Monster is conclusive and irresistable." Eventually, experts concluded that the Linnaean Society's findings were incorrect. What had been thought to be a new species was in fact a black snake – Coluber constrictor
Coluber constrictor
Coluber constrictor is a species of nonvenomous, colubrid snakes commonly referred to as the eastern racers. They are primarily found throughout the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, but they range north into Canada, and south into Mexico, Guatemala and Belize...
.
Dissolution
The society faded out due to members' other priorities. In 1822 they agreed to "suspend the meetings, give up the rooms, and place the collection, or such part of it as can be preserved, in some place where it may occasion no further expense to the Society. ...The perishable specimens, such as stuffed skins and specimens in alcohol, were given to Mr. GreenwoodEthan Allen Greenwood
Ethan Allen Greenwood was a lawyer, portrait painter, and entrepreneurial museum proprietor in Boston, Massachusetts in the early 19th century. He established the New England Museum in 1818.-Biography:...
, the proprietor of the New-England Museum
New-England Museum (Boston)
The New-England Museum in Boston, Massachusetts was established at 76 Court Street by Ethan A. Greenwood, Peter B. Bazin, John Dwight and Samuel Jackson. It featured displays of fine art, natural history specimens, wax figures, and other curiosities...
." The remainder of the collection was offered to the Boston Athenaeum, which declined; and then to Harvard College, which accepted the offer and its terms. However, it soon became clear that Harvard would not fulfill the terms of the agreement. In 1830 the former society's specimens were reclaimed (--"a few empty glazed cases, or containing dilapidated monkeys and birds"--) and given to the newly formed Boston Society of Natural History
Boston Society of Natural History
The Boston Society of Natural History in Boston, Massachusetts, was an organization dedicated to the study and promotion of natural history. It published a scholarly journal and established a museum. In its first few decades, the society occupied several successive locations in Boston's Financial...
.
Further reading
- John Davis. An address to the Linnaean Society of New England at the first Anniversary meeting at the Boston Athenaeum, June 14, 1815. North American Review, v. 1, no. 3, p. 316.
- Report of a committee of the Linnaean Society of New England: relative to a large marine animal, supposed to be a serpent, seen near Cape Ann, Massachusetts, in August 1817. Boston: Cummings and Hilliard, 1817.
- Linnaean Society of New England. The North American Review. Volume 6, Issue 16, November 1817; p. 141-142.
- John White Webster. A description of the island of St. Michael, comprising an account of its geological structure; with remarks on the other Azores or Western Islands. Originally communicated to the Linnaean Society of New-England. Boston: Published by R.P. & C. Williams, no. 2, Cornhill-Square, 1821.
- Augustus Addison GouldAugustus Addison GouldAugustus Addison Gould was an American conchologist and malacologist.-Biography:...
. Historical memoir of the Linnaean Society of New England; being an epitome of its records. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, v.9. 1863; p. 335-340. - T. Bouve. Historical Sketch of the Boston Society of Natural History: with a Notice of the Linnaean Society, which preceded it. 1880.
- Chandos Michael Brown. A Natural History of the Gloucester Sea Serpent: Knowledge, Power, and the Culture of Science in Antebellum America. American Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 3 (September 1990), pp. 402–436.