The
history of the Philippines is believed to have begun with the arrival of the first humans via
land bridgeA land bridge, in biogeography, is an isthmus or wider land connection between otherwise separate areas, which allows terrestrial animals and plants to cross over and colonise new lands...
s at least
30,000 years agoThe Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia...
. The first recorded visit from the
WestThe Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term that can have multiple meanings depending on its context...
is the arrival of
Ferdinand MagellanFerdinand Magellan was a maritime navigator and explorer. Ferdinand Magellan was born circa 1480 at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in the province of Tras-os-Montes, one of the wildest districts of Portugal...
on
Homonhon IslandHomonhon Island is an island in the province of Eastern Samar, Philippines, on the west side of Leyte Gulf. It is about 20 km long.-History:...
, southeast of
SamarSamar, formerly Western Samar, is a province in the Philippines located in the Eastern Visayas region. Its capital is Catbalogan City and covers the western portion of Samar island as well as several islands in the Samar Sea located to the west of the mainland. Catbalogan City and Calbayog City,...
on March 16, 1521.
Prior to Magellan's arrival, there were several established kingdoms and sultanates present in the Philippines, such as the Buddhist
Kingdom of ButuanThe Kingdom of Butuan was an ancient Indianized kingdom in pre-colonial southern Philippines centered on the present Mindanao city of Butuan. It was known for its mining of gold, its gold products and its vast trade network across the Nusantara area...
, the indianized kingdoms of Tondo and
MaysapanThe ancient Kingdom of Namayan, alternately referred to as the Kingdom of Sapa, Maysapan or Nasapan after its capital which goes by those names, was one of three major Kingdoms that dominated the area around the upper portion of the Pasig River and the coast of Laguna Lake in the Philippines before...
, some of which flourished from as early as the 10th century AD, as well as the Muslim Sultanates of Sulu,
MaynilaThe Kingdom of Seludong or Maynila, which after colonization became Manila, capital of the Philippines, was one of three major Kingdoms that dominated the area around the upper portion of the Pasig River before the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 1500s.The early inhabitants of the present-day...
, and
MaguindanaoMaguindanao is a province of the Philippines located in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao . Its capital is Shariff Aguak. It borders Lanao del Sur to the north, Cotabato to the east, and Sultan Kudarat to the south.-Geography:...
. Despite these kingdoms attaining complex political and social orders, as well as enjoying trade with areas now called China, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia, none encompassed the whole archipelago which was to become the unified Philippines of the twentieth century. The remainder of settlements were independent
BarangayA barangay , also known by its former Spanish adopted name, the barrio, is the smallest administrative division in the Philippines and is the native Filipino term for a village, district or ward. Barangays are further subdivided into smaller areas called Puroks...
s allied with one of the larger kingdoms.
Spanish colonization and settlement began with the arrival of
Miguel López de LegazpiMiguel López de Legazpi , also known as El Adelantado and El Viejo , was a Spanish conquistador who established one of the first European settlements in the East Indies and the Pacific Islands in 1565...
's expedition in 1565 and established the first permanent settlement of San Miguel on the island of
CebuCebu is a province in the Philippines, consisting of Cebu island and 167 surrounding islands. It is located to the east of Negros, to the west of Leyte and Bohol islands...
, and more settlements continued northward reaching the bay of
ManilaThe City of Manila , or simply Manila or Maynila, is the capital of the Philippines and one of the 17 cities and municipalities that make up Metro Manila. It is located on the eastern shores of Manila Bay, on the western portion of the National Capital Region, in the western side of Luzon...
on the island of
LuzonLuzon is the largest and most economically and politically important island in the Philippines and one of the three island groups in the country, with Visayas and Mindanao being the other two...
in 1571. In Manila, they established a new town and thus began an era of
SpanishThe Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in world history, and one of the first global empires. It included territories and colonies in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania, from the 15th century through—in the case of its African holdings—the latter portion of the 20th century...
colonization that lasted for more than three centuries.
Spanish rule unsuccessfully attempted to achieve the political unification of the whole archipelago of previously independent kingdoms and communities. Unification of the
PhilippinesThe Philippines officially known as the Republic of the Philippines, is a country in Southeast Asia with Manila as its capital city. It comprises 7,107 islands in the western Pacific Ocean....
was not achieved until the twentieth century. The Spanish introduced the western European version of
printingPrinting is a process for reproducing text and image, typically with ink on paper using a printing press. It is often carried out as a large-scale industrial process, and is an essential part of publishing and transaction printing.-History:...
and the
Gregorian calendarThe Gregorian calendar is the internationally accepted civil calendar. It was first proposed by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius, and decreed by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar was named, on 24 February 1582 by the papal bull Inter gravissimas...
. The
Spanish East IndiesSpanish East Indies was a term used to describe Spanish territories in Asia-Pacific which lasted over three centuries...
was ruled as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and administered from
Mexico CityMexico City is the capital city of Mexico. It is the economic, industrial, and cultural center in the country, and the most populous city, with about 8,836,045 inhabitants in 2008...
,
MexicoThe United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
from 1565 to 1821, and administered directly from
MadridMadrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. It is the third-most populous municipality in the European Union after Greater London and Berlin, and its metropolitan area is the third-most populous city by urban area in the European Union after Paris and London.The city is located on the river...
,
SpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.
[The Spanish constitution does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though España , Estado español and Nación española are used interchangeably...]
from 1821 until the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898, with a brief interlude from 1762 to 1764 when it was ruled by
Great BritainGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
. During the Spanish period, numerous towns were founded, infrastructures built, new crops and livestock introduced. The Chinese, British, Portuguese, Dutch, Japanese, and indigenous traders, complained that the Spanish reduced trade by attempting to enforce a Spanish
monopolyIn economics, a monopoly exists when a specific individual or an enterprise has sufficient control over a particular product or service to determine significantly the terms on which other individuals shall have access to it...
. Spanish missionaries attempted to convert the population to
ChristianityChristianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented by the revelations in the New Testament....
and were eventually generally successful in the northern and central lowlands. They founded schools, a university, and some hospitals, principally in Manila and the largest Spanish fort settlements. Universal education and universal medical assistance were never Spanish objectives in the Philippines.
The
Philippine RevolutionThe Philippine Revolution was an armed military conflict between the people of the Philippines and the Spanish colonial authorities which resulted in the secession of the Philippine Islands from the Spanish Empire....
against Spain began in April 1896, culminating two years later with a proclamation of independence and the establishment of the
First Philippine RepublicThe Philippine Republic , more commonly known as the First Philippine Republic or the Malolos Republic was a short-lived insurgent government in the Philippines...
. However, the
Treaty of ParisThe Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed on December 10, 1898, and ended the Spanish-American War.-Background:Article V of a peace protocol entered into between United States and Spain on August 12, 1898 read as follows:...
, at the end of the Spanish–American War, transferred control of the Philippines to the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. This agreement was not recognized by the Philippine Government which, on June 2, 1899, proclaimed a
Declaration of WarA declaration of war is a formal performative speech act or signing of a document by an authorized party of a government in order to initiate a state of war between two or more nations. The legality of who can declare war varies between nations and forms of government. In many nations power is...
against the United States. The
Philippine-American WarThe Philippine–American War, sometimes known as the Philippine War of Independence was an armed military conflict between the Philippines and the United States, which arose from the struggle of the insurgent First Philippine Republic against United States annexation of the islands...
which ensued resulted in massive casualties.
Philippine president
Emilio AguinaldoEmilio Aguinaldo y Famy was a Filipino general, politician, and independence leader. He played an instrumental role in Philippine independence during the Philippine Revolution against Spain and the Philippine-American War that resisted American occupation...
was captured in 1901 and the U.S. government declared the conflict officially over in 1902. The Filipino leaders, for the most part, accepted that the Americans had won, but hostilities continued and only began to decline in 1913. U.S. colonial rule of the Philippines started in 1905 with very limited local rule. Partial autonomy (commonwealth status) was granted in 1935, preparatory to a planned full independence from the United States in 1946. Preparation for a fully sovereign state was interrupted by the
JapaneseThe Empire of Japan was a Japanese political entity that existed during the period from the...
occupation of the islands during
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
With a promising
economyThe economy of the Philippines has a mixed economic system, and one of the newly industrialized emerging market economies of the world. In 2007, it was ranked as the 37th largest economy by the International Monetary Fund according to purchasing power parity. It is one of the fastest-growing...
in the 1950s and 1960s, the Philippines in the late 1960s and early 1970s saw a rise of
student activismStudent activism is work done by students to effect political, environmental, economic, or social change. It has often focused on making changes in schools, such as increasing student influence over curriculum or improving educational funding...
and civil unrest against the corrupt dictatorship of President
Ferdinand MarcosFerdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos was President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He was a lawyer, member of the Philippine House of Representatives and a member of the Philippine Senate . He was Senate President in 1963...
who declared
martial lawMartial law is the system of rules that takes effect when the military takes control of the normal administration of justice.Martial law is sometimes imposed during wars or occupations in the absence of any other civil government. Examples of this form of military rule include Germany and Japan...
in 1972. Because of close ties between United States and President Marcos, the U.S. government continued to support Marcos even though his administration was well-known for massive corruption and extensive human rights abuse. The peaceful and bloodless People Power Revolution of 1986, however, brought about the ousting of Marcos and a return to
democracyDemocracy is a system of government in which either the actual governing is carried out by the people governed , or the power to do so is granted by them...
for the country. The period since then, however, has been marked by
politicalThe politics of the Philippines takes place in an organized framework of a presidential, representative, and democratic republic whereby the president is both the head of state and the head of government within a pluriform multi-party system...
instability and hampered economic productivity.
Prehistory
Human
fossilFossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous rock formations and sedimentary layers is known as the fossil record...
records indicate that the Philippines may have been inhabited as early as 50,000 years ago. According to earlier archaeological findings, the first
humanHumans are bipedal primates belonging to the species Homo sapiens in Hominidae, the great ape family. They are the only surviving member of the genus Homo. Humans have a highly developed brain, capable of abstract reasoning, language, introspection, and problem solving...
beings in the Philippines came from the islands around Asia which Professor
H. Otley BeyerHenry Otley Beyer was an American anthropologist, who spent most of his adult life in the Philippines teaching Filipinos and other scholars about Philippine indigenous culture...
, eminent American authority on Philippine archeology and
anthropologyAnthropology is the study of human beings, everywhere and throughout time....
, dubbed the "Dawn Man". Yet the oldest human fossil found in the Philippines thus far is the 22,000-year-old skull cap of a "Stone-Age" human discovered by Dr. Robert B. Fox, an American anthropologist of the
National Museum-Australia:*Australian National Aviation Museum*Australian National Maritime Museum*, Sydney*Australian War Memorial*Museum Victoria*National Alpine Museum*, Nicholls*National Gallery of Australia*National Gallery of Victoria***National Museum of Australia...
inside
Tabon CaveThe Tabon Caves are a set of caves north of Quezon municipality, in the south western part of the province of Palawan on Palawan Island, in the Philippines. The caves are named after the Tabon Scrubfowl. The complex has 29 explored caves, but 200 caves are known to exist on Lipuun Point. They are...
,
PalawanPalawan is an island province of the Philippines located in the MIMAROPA region. Its capital is Puerto Princesa City, and it is the largest province in the country in terms of total area of jurisdiction. The islands of Palawan stretch from Mindoro in the northeast to Borneo in the southwest. It...
on May 28, 1962 and was dubbed the "
Tabon ManTabon man refers to fossilized human remains discovered on the island of Palawan in the Philippines on May 28, 1962 by Dr. Robert B. Fox, an American anthropologist of the National Museum. These remains, the fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone of three individuals, were and are the earliest...
". The Tabon caves of
PalawanPalawan is an island province of the Philippines located in the MIMAROPA region. Its capital is Puerto Princesa City, and it is the largest province in the country in terms of total area of jurisdiction. The islands of Palawan stretch from Mindoro in the northeast to Borneo in the southwest. It...
indicate settlement for at least 30,500 years; these hunter-gatherers used
stone flake toolIn archaeology, a lithic flake is a "portion of rock removed from an objective piece by percussion or pressure," and may also be referred to as a chip or spall, or collectively as debitage. The objective piece, or the rock being reduced by the removal of flakes, is known as a core. Once the proper...
s. After these early settlers, the
NegritoThe term Negrito refers to several ethnic groups in isolated parts of Southeast Asia.Their current populations include the Aeta, Agta, Ayta, Pygmies, Ita, Baluga, Ati, Dumagat and at least 25 other tribes of the Philippines, the Semang of the Malay peninsula, the Mani of Thailand and 12 Andamanese...
s arrived. Their ancestors include the
AtiThe Ati is a Negrito ethnic group in Panay, which is located in the Visayas , the central portion of the Philippine archipelago...
and the
AetaThe Aeta , Agta or Ayta are an indigenous people who live in scattered, isolated mountainous parts of Luzon, Philippines...
.
About 6,000 to 2,000 years ago, Austronesian people from China moved to Taiwan to the Philippines bringing with them rice agriculture .
Indigenous Kingdoms and Thalassocracies 900 AD to 1521
Laguna Copperplate inscription
The official end of Philippine prehistory was in 900 AD, with the discovery of the
Laguna Copperplate InscriptionThe Laguna Copperplate inscription is the first written document found in a Philippine language. The plate was found in 1989 by Alfredo E. Evangelista. in Laguna de Bay, in the metroplex of Manila, Philippines, the LCI has inscribed on it a date of Saka era 822, corresponding to 900 CE...
, the oldest known proof of literacy in the country and the first marker for official written history. The document describes a pardon of a debt of a man named Namwaran (along with his descendants) from the Commander in Chief of Tundun, represented by the Lord Minister of Pailah (now Pila), Jayadewa. Various place names are mentioned in the document, as well as proof of a complex social stratum, highly influenced by
HinduA Hindu is an adherent of Hinduism, a set of religious, philosophical and cultural systems that originated in the Indian subcontinent. The vast body of Hindu scriptures, divided into Śruti and Smriti , lay the foundation of Hindu beliefs which primarily include dhárma, kárma, ahimsa and saṃsāra...
systems and beliefs (eg, the calendar system used on the Laguna Copperplate Inscription was that of
Jyotisha' is the Hindu system of astrology. Jyotisha is also known as Indian astrology, Hindu astrology, and Vedic astrology.
[Sutton, Komilla...]
, the Hindu lunar calendar). Scattered documents from neighbouring states and kingdoms, such as China, Java, Ryukyu and Japan describe various aspects of early Philippine society.
Trade and social caste
The Philippines had trade relations with southern China and cultural ties with India through neighboring present-day
MalaysiaMalaysia is a country in Southeast Asia that consists of thirteen states and three Federal Territories, with a total landmass of . The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. The population stands at over 28 million inhabitants...
, and
IndonesiaThe Republic of Indonesia is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With an estimated population of around 237 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, with the world's largest population of Muslims.Indonesia is a republic, with an...
as early as the 9th to the 12th centuries. The social and political organization of the population in the widely scattered islands evolved into a generally common pattern. Only the permanent-field rice farmers of northern
LuzonLuzon is the largest and most economically and politically important island in the Philippines and one of the three island groups in the country, with Visayas and Mindanao being the other two...
had any concept of territoriality. The basic unit of settlement was the
barangayA barangay , also known by its former Spanish adopted name, the barrio, is the smallest administrative division in the Philippines and is the native Filipino term for a village, district or ward. Barangays are further subdivided into smaller areas called Puroks...
, originally a kinship group headed by a
DatuDatu is the title for tribal chief and monarchs in the Philippines. Together with Sultan and Rajah, they are also titles used for native royalty and are currently used in the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. These titles are the equivalent of European dukes and marquesses...
(chief). Within the barangay the broad social divisions consisted of the maharlika (
noblesNobility is a state-privileged status which is generally hereditary, but which may also be personal only. Titles of nobility are usually associated with present or former monarchies. The term originally referred to those who were "known" or "notable" and was applied to the highest social class in...
), including the datu; timawa (
freemenFreeman is a term used generally as an English or American Colonial expression in Puritan times, which referred to those persons who were not under legal restraint – usually for the payment of an outstanding debt, because they had recently relocated, or because they were idle and had no way...
); and a group described before the Spanish period as dependents. Dependents included several categories: landless agricultural workers; those who had lost freeman status because of indebtedness or punishment for crime; and alipin (slaves), most of whom appear to have been war captives.
In the period between the 7th century to the beginning of the 1400s, numerous prosperous centers of trade had emerged, including the Kingdom of Namayan which flourished alongside Manila Bay,, the Rajahnate of
CebuCebu is a province in the Philippines, consisting of Cebu island and 167 surrounding islands. It is located to the east of Negros, to the west of Leyte and Bohol islands...
, the Confederation of
PanayPanay may refer to*Panay Island*Panay *Panay, Capiz*Panay River*Panay Gulf* USS Panay *Panay incident...
, the Rajahnate of
ButuanThe Kingdom of Butuan was an ancient Indianized kingdom in pre-colonial southern Philippines centered on the present Mindanao city of Butuan. It was known for its mining of gold, its gold products and its vast trade network across the Nusantara area...
, the Kingdom of Sanfotsi situated in
PangasinanPangasinan is one of the provinces of the Republic of the Philippines. The provincial capital is Lingayen. Pangasinan is located on the west central area of the island of Luzon along the Lingayen Gulf. The total land area of Pangasinan is 5,368.82 square kilometers. According to the latest...
, the Kingdoms of Zabag and Wak-Wak situated in
PampangaPampanga is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is the City of San Fernando, Pampanga. Pampanga is bordered by the provinces of Bataan and Zambales to the west, Tarlac and Nueva Ecija to the north, and Bulacan to the southeast...
and Aparri (which specialized in trade with
Japanis an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
and the Kingdom of Ryukyu in Okinawa).
The introduction of Islam - 1200s
In 1380
Karim ul' MakhdumMakhdum Karim was a 14th century Arab trader who brought Islam to the Philippines, in 1380. He established a mosque in Sulu, known as Sheik Karimal Makdum Mosque which is the oldest mosque in the country....
the first
Islamic missionaryDa‘wah usually denotes preaching of Islam. Da‘wah means literally "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation", being the active participle of a verb meaning variously "to summon, to invite" . A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is...
to reach the
Sulu ArchipelagoSulu Archipelago is an island chain in the southwest Philippines. It is considered to be part of Moroland by the local independence movement. With the centers in Maimbung and Jolo, the whole of this archipelago, Palawan and coastal regions of the Zamboanga Peninsula and North Borneo used to be...
and
JoloJolo may refer to:* Jolo Island* Jolo, Sulu* Jolo, West Virginia* Jolo is also the nickname of Swedish author Jan Olof Olsson....
brought Islam to what is now the Philippines.
The
Sheik Karimal Makdum MosqueThe Sheik Karimal Makdum Mosque was the first mosque established in the Philippines by the Arab trader Makhdum Karim in 1380.The original mosque is located inside the new building. The burial ground of Sheik Al Makdum is located beside the mosque....
was the first mosque established in the Philippines on
SimunulSimunul is a 4th class municipality in the province of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines. According to the 2000 census, it has a population of 31,962 people in 4,910 households. The language spoken is Sama, also known as Sinama or Samal. The first Muslims in the Philippines are said to have arrived at...
. Subsequent visits by Arab Muslim missionaries from Malaysia and Indonesia helped strengthen the Islamic faith in the Philippines, mostly in the south but as far north as
ManilaThe City of Manila , or simply Manila or Maynila, is the capital of the Philippines and one of the 17 cities and municipalities that make up Metro Manila. It is located on the eastern shores of Manila Bay, on the western portion of the National Capital Region, in the western side of Luzon...
. Vast sultanates were established, comprising the Sultanate of Maguindanao and the Sultanate of Sulu. Since the first people who established themselves as
sultanSultan is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. Originally it was an Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", or "rulership", derived from the masdar سلطة , meaning "authority" or "power"...
s in various parts of the
Malay ArchipelagoThe Malay Archipelago and Maritime Southeast Asia are names given to the archipelago located between mainland Southeastern Asia and Australia. Located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, the group of 20,000 islands is the world's largest archipelago by area...
—
MalaysiaMalaysia is a country in Southeast Asia that consists of thirteen states and three Federal Territories, with a total landmass of . The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. The population stands at over 28 million inhabitants...
,
IndonesiaThe Republic of Indonesia is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With an estimated population of around 237 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, with the world's largest population of Muslims.Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, and the
PhilippinesThe Philippines officially known as the Republic of the Philippines, is a country in Southeast Asia with Manila as its capital city. It comprises 7,107 islands in the western Pacific Ocean....
—were usually of Arab descent, most people of royal lineage claim Arab descent, some going as far as claiming descent from the Prophet
MuhammadMuhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh , is the founder of the religion of Islam [ إِسْلامْ ] and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of , the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of Islamic prophets as taught by the...
himself.
Further immigration by Muslims to the Philippines by traders and proselytizers from
MalaysiaMalaysia is a country in Southeast Asia that consists of thirteen states and three Federal Territories, with a total landmass of . The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. The population stands at over 28 million inhabitants...
,
IndonesiaThe Republic of Indonesia is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With an estimated population of around 237 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, with the world's largest population of Muslims.Indonesia is a republic, with an...
,
IndiaIndia, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal...
and the
ArabiaThe Arabian Peninsula , Arabia, Arabistan, and the Arabian subcontinent is a peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia...
strengthened the foothold of the Islamic faith. By the 13th century, Islam was firmly entrenched in the
Sulu ArchipelagoSulu Archipelago is an island chain in the southwest Philippines. It is considered to be part of Moroland by the local independence movement. With the centers in Maimbung and Jolo, the whole of this archipelago, Palawan and coastal regions of the Zamboanga Peninsula and North Borneo used to be...
and spread from there to
MindanaoMindanao is the second largest and easternmost island in the Philippines. It is also one of the three island groups in the country, along with Luzon and Visayas...
; it had reached the
ManilaThe City of Manila , or simply Manila or Maynila, is the capital of the Philippines and one of the 17 cities and municipalities that make up Metro Manila. It is located on the eastern shores of Manila Bay, on the western portion of the National Capital Region, in the western side of Luzon...
area by 1565. Although Islam spread to Luzon, Animism, syncretized with
HinduismHinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as ', a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", by its adherents. Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as...
and Vajrayana Buddhism, was still the religion of the majority of the Philippine islands.
Muslim immigrants introduced another political concept for territorial states by introducing
SultanSultan is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. Originally it was an Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", or "rulership", derived from the masdar سلطة , meaning "authority" or "power"...
s exercising authority via a panglima, as opposed to the older Indianized Rajah system used at the time of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. States that use this system include those of Sulu, Maguindanao and
Seludong (Manila)The Kingdom of Seludong or Maynila, which after colonization became Manila, capital of the Philippines, was one of three major Kingdoms that dominated the area around the upper portion of the Pasig River before the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 1500s.The early inhabitants of the present-day...
. When the
SpaniardsSpanish people or Spaniards constitute the nationality and ethnic group of natives of Spain, a European country in the Iberian Peninsula, in southwestern Europe. The Spanish nationality is in essence made up of regional nationalities, reflecting the complex history of Spain...
arrived in the 16th century, the majority of the estimated 500,000 inhabitants in the islands lived in barangay settlements. Some settlements were ruled by Rajahs while others were under Sultans. There were also Rajahs who converted to Islam.
Early Spanish expeditions
Parts of the Philippine Islands were known to Europeans before the 1521 Spanish expedition around the world led by
PortuguesePortugal , officially the Portuguese Republic , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east...
-born Spanish explorer
Ferdinand MagellanFerdinand Magellan was a maritime navigator and explorer. Ferdinand Magellan was born circa 1480 at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in the province of Tras-os-Montes, one of the wildest districts of Portugal...
, who were not the
first Europeans in the PhilippinesIt is not known who were the first Europeans to visit any part of what is now known as the Philippines. However, from books published in western Europe before Ferdinand Magellan landed in the southern Philippines in 1521 , it is quite clear that the members of Magellan's 1521 expedition were not ...
. Magellan landed on the island called Homonhon, claiming the islands he saw for Spain, and naming them Islas de San Lazaro. He established friendly relations with some of the local leaders especially with
Rajah HumabonRajah Humabon was the Rajah of Cebu at the time of Portuguese explorer, Ferdinand Magellan's arrival in the Philippines in 1521. There are no official record of his existence before the Spanish arrival, but extensive narration by Italian historian Antonio Pigafetta was made on Humabon and the...
and converted some of them to Roman Catholicism. In the Philippines, they explored many islands including the island of Mactan. However, Magellan was killed in a battle he led there against the ruling datu
Lapu-LapuLapu-Lapu was the datu of Mactan, an island in the Visayas, Philippines, who is known as the first native of the archipelago to have resisted Spanish colonization. He is now regarded as the first Filipino hero....
.
Over the next several decades, other Spanish expeditions were dispatched to the islands. In 1543,
Ruy López de VillalobosRuy López de Villalobos was a Spanish explorer who sailed the Pacific from Mexico to establish a permanent foothold for Spain in the East Indies, which was near the Line of Demarcation between Spain, and Portugal specified by the Treaty of Saragossa in 1529.-Expedition to the Philippine...
led an expedition to the islands and gave the name Las Islas Filipinas (after
Philip II of SpainPhilip II was King of Spain and Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, during his wife Mary Tudor's reign, King of England and Ireland...
) to the islands of
SamarSamar, formerly Western Samar, is a province in the Philippines located in the Eastern Visayas region. Its capital is Catbalogan City and covers the western portion of Samar island as well as several islands in the Samar Sea located to the west of the mainland. Catbalogan City and Calbayog City,...
and
LeyteLeyte is a province of the Philippines located in the Eastern Visayas region. Its capital is Tacloban City and occupies the northern three-quarters of the island of Leyte. Leyte is located west of Samar, north of Southern Leyte and south of Biliran...
. The name was extended to the entire archipelago in the twentieth century.
Spanish settlement
Permanent Spanish settlements were not established until 1565 when an expedition led by the
ConquistadorConquistador is the term widely used to refer to the Spanish soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 15th through the 17th centuries following Europe's discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492...
,
Miguel López de LegazpiMiguel López de Legazpi , also known as El Adelantado and El Viejo , was a Spanish conquistador who established one of the first European settlements in the East Indies and the Pacific Islands in 1565...
, arrived in Cebu from Mexico. Six years later, following the defeat of the local Muslim ruler, Rajah Sulaiman III, López de Legazpi established a capital at
ManilaThe City of Manila , or simply Manila or Maynila, is the capital of the Philippines and one of the 17 cities and municipalities that make up Metro Manila. It is located on the eastern shores of Manila Bay, on the western portion of the National Capital Region, in the western side of Luzon...
, a location that offered the excellent harbor of
Manila BayManila Bay is a natural harbor which serves the Port of Manila , in the Philippines. The bay is considered to be one of the best natural harbors in Southeast Asia and one of the finest in the world. It has an area of , and a coastline of . The entrance is wide and expands to a width of...
, a large population, and proximity to the ample food supplies of the
Central LuzonCentral Luzon , also known as Region III , is an administrative division or region of the Republic of the Philippines, primarily serve to organize the 7 provinces of the vast central plain of the island of Luzon , for administrative convenience...
rice lands. Manila became the center of Spanish government, including military, religious, and commercial activities in the islands. Despite the opposition of the Portuguese, who desired to maintain their monopoly on East Indies trade,little armed resistance initially. A significant problem the Spanish faced was the subjugation of the Muslims of western
MindanaoMindanao is the second largest and easternmost island in the Philippines. It is also one of the three island groups in the country, along with Luzon and Visayas...
, and the
Sulu ArchipelagoSulu Archipelago is an island chain in the southwest Philippines. It is considered to be part of Moroland by the local independence movement. With the centers in Maimbung and Jolo, the whole of this archipelago, Palawan and coastal regions of the Zamboanga Peninsula and North Borneo used to be...
. The Muslims, in response to attacks on them from the Spanish and their native allies, raided areas of
LuzonLuzon is the largest and most economically and politically important island in the Philippines and one of the three island groups in the country, with Visayas and Mindanao being the other two...
and the
VisayasVisayas is one of the three island groups in the Philippines, along with Mindanao and Luzon. It consists of several islands, primarily surrounding the Visayan Sea. Its population are referred to as the Visayans....
that were under Spanish colonial control. By the end of the 16th century Spain controlled practically the entire archipelago, with the exception of Palawan and the Moro country. The Spanish conducted intermittent military campaigns against the Muslims, but without conclusive results until after the middle of the 19th century.
The Philippines would have had a similar battle standard, with the coat of arms of Manila in place of the one of Mexico City.
Church and state were inseparably linked in Spanish policy, with the state assuming responsibility for religious establishments. One of Spain's objectives in colonizing the Philippines was the conversion of the local population to Roman Catholicism. The work of conversion was facilitated by the absence of other organized religions, except for Islam, which predominated in the southwest. The pageantry of the church had a wide appeal, reinforced by the incorporation of indigenous social customs into religious observances. The eventual outcome was a new Roman Catholic majority, from which the Muslims of western Mindanao and the upland tribal peoples of Luzon remained detached and alienated (such as the Ifugaos of the Cordillera region and the Mangyans of Mindoro).
At the lower levels of administration, the Spanish built on traditional village organization by co-opting local leaders. This system of indirect rule helped create an indigenous
upper classIn sociology an upper class is the group of people at the top of a social hierarchy. Members of an upper class may have great power over the allocation of resources and governmental policy in their area, but only to the extent that the power of the state can intervene in free exchange or distort...
, called the
principaliaThe Principalía or noble class was the social and educated class in the towns of colonial Philippines composed of the Gobernadorcillo , or the Cabeza de Barangay who governed the districts, and the awardees of the medal of Civil Merit...
, who had local wealth, high status, and other privileges. This perpetuated an
oligarchicAn Oligarchy is a form of government in which power effectively rests with a small elite segment of society distinguished by royal, wealth, intellectual, family, military, or religious hegemony. The word oligarchy is from the Greek words for "few" and "rule"...
system of local control. Among the most significant changes under Spanish rule was that the indigenous idea of communal use and ownership of land was replaced with the concept of private ownership and the conferring of titles on members of the principalia.
The Philippines was not profitable as a colony during the early parts of Spanish rule, and a long war with the
DutchThe Dutch Empire consisted of the overseas territories controlled by the Netherlands from the 17th to the 20th century. The Dutch followed Portugal and Spain in establishing an overseas colonial empire, aided by their skills in shipping and trade and the surge of nationalism accompanying the...
in the 17th century and intermittent conflict with the Muslims nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury. Colonial income derived mainly from
entrepôtAn entrepôt is a trading post where merchandise can be imported and exported without paying import duties, often at a profit. This profit is possible because of trade conditions, for example, the reluctance of ships to travel the entire length of a long trading route, and selling to the entrepôt...
trade: The
Manila GalleonThe Manila galleons or Manila-Acapulco galleons were Spanish trading ships that sailed once or twice per year across the Pacific Ocean between Manila in the Philippines, and Acapulco, New Spain . The name changed reflecting the city that the ship was sailing from. Service was inaugurated in 1565,...
s sailing from the Fort of Manila to the Fort of
AcapulcoAcapulco is a city, and major sea port in the state of Guerrero on the Pacific coast of Mexico, southwest from Mexico City. Acapulco is located on a deep, semi-circular bay. It is a port of call for shipping and cruising lines running between Panama and San Francisco, California, United States...
on the west coast of Mexico brought shipments of silver bullion, and minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Asian, and Pacific products. There was no direct trade with Spain.
British rule (1762-1764)
In August 1759, Charles III ascended the Spanish throne. At the time,
BritainThe Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a sovereign state in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1801...
and
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
were at war, in what was later called the Seven Years War. France successfully negotiated a treaty with Spain known as the
Family CompactThis article is about a group in nineteenth century Canadian history. For the pact between the royal families of eighteenth century France and Spain, see Pacte de Famille....
which was signed on 15 August 1761. By an ancillary secret convention, Spain was committed to making preparations for war against Britain.
Britain declared war against Spain on 4 January 1762. On 6 January 1762 the British
CabinetA Cabinet is a body of high-ranking members of government, typically representing the executive branch. It can also sometimes be referred to as the Council of Ministers, an Executive Council, or Executive Committee.- Overview :...
led by the
Prime MinisterA prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The position is usually held by, but need not always be held by, a politician. In many systems, the prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and...
, the Earl of Bute, agreed to attack
HavanaHavana is the capital city, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba. The city is one of the 14 Cuban provinces. The city/province has 2.4 million inhabitants, and the urban area over 3.7 million, making Havana the largest city in both Cuba and the Caribbean region...
in the West Indies, and approved Colonel
William DraperSir William Draper , was a British military officer who conquered Manila in 1762, but lost Minorca in 1782. He was involved in 1774 with a key meeting that agreed an early set of cricket rules including the leg before wicket rule....
's 'Scheme for taking Manila with some Troops, which are already in the East Indies' in the East. Draper was commanding officer of the 79th Regiment of Foot, which was currently stationed in Madras,
IndiaIndia, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal...
. On 18 January 1762, Spain issued their own declaration of war against Britain. On 21 January 1762 King George III signed the instructions to Draper to implement his Scheme, emphasising that by taking advantage of the 'existing war with Spain' Britain might be able to assure her post-war mercantile expansion. There was also the expectation that the commerce of Spain would suffer a 'crippling blow'. On arrival in India, Draper's brevet rank became
brigadier generalBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
.
On 24 September 1762 , the small but technically proficient force of British Army regulars and
British East India CompanyThe East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China...
soldiers, supported by the ships and men of the East Indies Squadron of the British
Royal NavyThe Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of HM Armed Forces . From the beginning of the 18th century until well into the 20th century, it was the most powerful navy in the world, playing a key part in establishing the British Empire as the dominant world power from 1815 until the early...
, sailed into
Manila BayManila Bay is a natural harbor which serves the Port of Manila , in the Philippines. The bay is considered to be one of the best natural harbors in Southeast Asia and one of the finest in the world. It has an area of , and a coastline of . The entrance is wide and expands to a width of...
from Madras.
The expedition, led by Brigadier General William Draper and
Rear-Admiral Samuel CornishSir Samuel Cornish, 1st Baronet was a British naval commander who fought in the Seven Years' War and conquered Manila on October 6 1762....
, captured Manila, "the greatest Spanish fortress in the western Pacific", and attempted to establish free trade with
ChinaChina is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational entity extending over a large area in East Asia....
.
The Spanish defeat was not really surprising. The Royal Governor of the Philippines, Don Pedro Manuel de Arandia had died in 1759 and his replacement Brigadier Don Francisco de la Torre had not arrived because of the British attack on
HavanaHavana is the capital city, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba. The city is one of the 14 Cuban provinces. The city/province has 2.4 million inhabitants, and the urban area over 3.7 million, making Havana the largest city in both Cuba and the Caribbean region...
,
CubaThe Republic of Cuba is an island country in the Caribbean. It consists of the island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city. Cuba is home to over 11 million people and is...
. Spanish policy was for the Archbishop of Manila to be Lieutenant Governor. Because the garrison was commanded by the Archbishop Don
Manuel Rojo del Rio y VieyraManuel Antonio Rojo del Rio y Vieyra was Archbishop of Manila and acting Governor-General of the Philippines during the 1762-1764 British occupation of Manila.-Early life:...
, instead of by a military expert, many mistakes were made by the Spanish forces, some of whom were only armed with bows and arrows.
Under Spanish rule, the Philippines never paid its own way, but survived on an annual subsidy paid by the Spanish Crown. As a cost saving measure, and because the Spanish authorities never really contemplated a serious expedition against Manila by a European power, the 200 year old fortifications at Manila had not been improved much since first built by the Spanish.
On 5 October 1762 (4 October local calendar), the night before the fall of the walled city of Manila (now called Intramuros), the Spanish military persuaded Archbishop Rojo to summon a council of war. By very heavy battery fire that day, the British had successfully breached the walls of the bastion San Diego, dried up the ditch, dismounted the cannons of that bastion and the two adjoining bastions, San Andes and San Eugeno, set fire to parts of the town, and driven the Spaniards from the walls. The Spanish military recommended capitulation. The archbishop would not consent. The only positive action from the council of war was the dispatch of Oidor Don
Simón de Anda y SalazarSimón de Anda y Salazar was a Spanish Basque governor of the Philippines from October 6, 1762 to March 17, 1764, and again from July, 1770 to October 30, 1776.-Governorship:...
to the provincial town of
Bulacan- General Information :Bulacan or Bulakan is a 2nd class urban municipality in the province of Bulacan, Philippines. According to the latest census, it has a population of 72,289 people in 13,577 households....
to organize continued resistance to the British once Manila fell. At that war council, the Real Audencia appointed Anda Lieutenant Governor and Visitor-General. That night Anda took a substantial portion of the treasury and official records with him, departing Fort Santigo through the postern of Our Lady of Solitude, to a boat on the Pasig River, and then to Bulacan. He moved headquarters from Bulacan to Bacolor in
PampangaPampanga is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is the City of San Fernando, Pampanga. Pampanga is bordered by the provinces of Bataan and Zambales to the west, Tarlac and Nueva Ecija to the north, and Bulacan to the southeast...
province, which was more secure from the British, and quickly obtained the powerful support of the
AugustiniansThe Augustinians, named after Saint Augustine of Hippo , are several Christian monastic orders and congregations of both men and women living according to a guide to religious life known as the Rule of Saint Augustine...
. He raised an army which may eventually have amounted to 10,000 men, almost all ill-armed native Filipinos. On 8 October 1762 Anda wrote to Rojo informing him that Anda had assumed the position of Governor and Capitan-General under statutes of the Indies which allowed for the devolution of authority from the Governor to the Audencia, of which he was the only member not captive by the British. Anda demanded the royal seal, but Rojo declined to surrender it and refused to recognise Anda's self-proclamation as Governor and Capitan-General.
Early success by the British in Manila did not enable them to expand their control over all parts of the Spanish Philippines. They were severely undermanned and underarmed, and in reality could only control Manila and Cavite. But Manila was the capital, and key, to the Spanish Philippines, and the British accepted the written surrender of the Spanish government in the Philippines from Archbishop Rojo and the Real Audiencia on 30 October 1762.
The terms of surrender finally proposed by the Real Audencia, agreed to by the British leaders, and signed by the Spanish under their Royal Seal, secured private property, guaranteed the Roman Catholic religion and its episcopal government, and granted the citizens of the former Spanish colony the rights of peaceful travel and of trade 'as British subjects'. Under the direction of the provisional British governor, (Dawsonne Drake), the Philippines continued to be governed by the Real Audencia, the expenses of which were agreed to be paid by Spain.
The Seven Years War was ended by the
Peace of ParisThe Treaty of Paris, often called the Peace of Paris, or the Treaty of 1763, was signed on February 10, 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. It ended the Seven Years' War. The treaty marked the beginning of an extensive period of British dominance...
signed on 10 February 1763. At the time of signing the treaty, the signatories were not aware that the Philippines had been taken by the British and was being administered as a British colony. Consequently no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish Crown.
On 20 March 1764, the Spanish governor designate, Brigadier de la Torre, arrived at Santa Cruz, Manila, with packets from London and Madrid, including dispatches from London for the surrender of Manila to him. The dispatches from London threw the British officers into intense disarray, with the provisional governor being ousted, commanding officers being arrested, and some garrison troops refusing to obey various orders and countermanding orders, including orders to arrest and detain their commanding officers. However, the threat of the oncoming monsoon season quickly induced the British to settle down and get out while they could.
The British ended their rule by embarking from Manila and Cavite in the first week of April 1764, and sailing out of Manila Bay for Batavia, India, and England. The conflict over payment by Spain of the outstanding part of the ransom promised by Archbishop Rojo and the Real Audencia in the terms of surrender, and compensation expected from Britain for excesses committed by Governor Drake against residents of Manila, continued in Europe for years afterwards.
Spanish rule in the 19th Century
In 1781, Governor-General
José Basco y VargasJosé Basco y Vargas was the 44th governor of the Philippines under Spanish colonial rule, from 1778 to 1787. He was the most economic minded governor-general. He established the Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País, or the Economic Society of Friends of the Country...
established the
Economic Society of the Friends of the CountryThe Sociedades Económicas de Amigos del País were private associations established in various cities throughout Enlightenment Spain, and to a lesser degree in some of her colonies .The Sociedades Económicas were founded as part of a movement to stimulate the economic and intellectual...
. The Philippines was administered from the Viceroyalty of New Spain until the grant of independence to Mexico in 1821 necessitated the direct rule from Spain of the Philippines from that year. Developments in and out of the country helped to bring new ideas to the Philippines including the ideals of the French and American Revolutions. In 1863, Queen Isabella of Spain decreed the establishment of a public school system in Spanish, leading to increasing numbers of educated Filipinos. The opening of the
Suez CanalThe Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened on November 1869, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigating around Africa...
in 1869 cut travel time to Spain. Both of these events prompted the rise of the
ilustradoThe Ilustrados constituted the Filipino educated class during the Spanish colonial period in the late 19th century. They were the middle class who were educated in Spanish and exposed to Spanish liberal and European nationalist ideals...
s, an enlightened class of Creoles and Indios, since many young Filipinos were able to study in Europe.
The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1878. The country's population as of December 31, 1877 was recorded at 5,567,685 persons.
Enlightened by the Propaganda Movement to the injustices of the Spanish colonial government and the "frailocracy", the ilustrados originally clamored for adequate representation to the
Spanish CortesThe Cortes Generales is the legislature of Spain. It is a bicameral parliament, composed of the Congress of Deputies and the Senate . The Cortes has power to enact any law and to amend the constitution...
and later for independence.
José RizalJosé Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda Quintos , was a Filipino polymath: a poet, writer, artist, intellectual, and educator. He was a nationalist and the pre-eminent advocate for reforms in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era. Rizal's 1896 court-martial and execution made him...
, the most celebrated intellectual and radical illustrado of the era, wrote the novels "
Noli Me TangereNoli Me Tangere is a novel written in Spanish by Filipino writer and national hero José Rizal, first published in 1887 in Berlin, Germany...
", and "
El filibusterismoEl filibusterismo , also known by its English alternate title The Reign of Greed, is the second novel written by Philippine national hero José Rizal...
", which greatly inspired the movement for independence. The
KatipunanThe Katipunan was a Philippine revolutionary society founded by anti-Spanish Filipinos in Manila in 1892, which aimed primarily to gain independence from Spain through revolution. The society was initiated by Filipino patriots Andrés Bonifacio, Teodoro Plata, Ladislao Diwa, and others on the night...
, a
secret societySecret society is a term used to describe a variety of organizations. Although the exact meaning of the term is disputed, several of the definitions advanced indicate a degree of secrecy and secret knowledge, which might include denying membership or knowledge of the group, negative consequences...
whose primary purpose was that of overthrowing Spanish rule in the Philippines, was founded by
Andrés BonifacioAndrés Bonifacio y de Castro was a Filipino nationalist and revolutionary. He was a founder and leader of the Katipunan movement which sought the independence of the Philippines from Spanish colonial rule and started the Philippine Revolution. He is considered a de facto national hero of the...
who became its Supremo (leader).
The
Philippine RevolutionThe Philippine Revolution was an armed military conflict between the people of the Philippines and the Spanish colonial authorities which resulted in the secession of the Philippine Islands from the Spanish Empire....
began in 1896. Rizal was implicated in the outbreak of the revolution and executed for
treasonIn law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more serious acts of disloyalty to one's sovereign or nation. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, such as the murder of a husband by his wife...
in 1896. The Katipunan in
CaviteCavite is a province of the Philippines located on the southern shores of Manila Bay in the CALABARZON region in Luzon, just 30 kilometers south of Manila. Cavite is surrounded by Laguna to the east, Metro Manila to the northeast, and Batangas to the south...
split into two groups,
MagdiwangMagdiwang can refer to the following:*Magdiwang , a faction of the Katipunan*Magdiwang, Romblon, a Philippine municipality...
, led by
Mariano ÁlvarezMariano Álvarez was a Filipino revolutionary and politician.-Pre-war life:Alvarez was born in Noveleta, Cavite. He received formal schooling at the San Jose College in Manila, and obtained a teacher's diploma. He returned to Cavite and worked as a schoolteacher in Naic and Maragondon. He was...
(a relative of Bonifacio's by marriage), and
MagdaloMagdalo can refer to the following:*Magdalo , a political faction of the Katipunan*Magdalo , a group of dissident soldiers in the Philippines...
, led by
Emilio AguinaldoEmilio Aguinaldo y Famy was a Filipino general, politician, and independence leader. He played an instrumental role in Philippine independence during the Philippine Revolution against Spain and the Philippine-American War that resisted American occupation...
. Leadership conflicts between Bonifacio and Aguinaldo culminated in the execution or assassination of the former by the latter's soldiers. Aguinaldo agreed to a truce with the
Pact of Biak-na-BatoThe Pact of Biak-na-Bato, signed on December 14, 1897, created a truce between Spanish Colonial Governor-General Fernando Primo de Rivera and Emilio Aguinaldo to end the Philippine Revolution...
and Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries were exiled to Hong Kong. Not all the revolutionary generals complied with the agreement. One, General Francisco Makabulos, established a Central Executive Committee to serve as the interim government until a more suitable one was created. Armed conflicts resumed, this time coming from almost every province in Spanish-governed Philippines.
In 1898, as conflicts continued in the Philippines, the
USS MaineUSS Maine , a 19th-century ship of the United States Navy, exploded and sank on February 15, 1898 in an event that precipitated the Spanish–American War and also popularized the phrase Remember the Maine, to Hell with Spain! In subsequent years, the cause of the sinking of the Maine became the...
, having been sent to
CubaThe Republic of Cuba is an island country in the Caribbean. It consists of the island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city. Cuba is home to over 11 million people and is...
because of U.S. concerns for the safety of its citizens during an ongoing Cuban revolution, exploded and sank in
HavanaHavana is the capital city, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba. The city is one of the 14 Cuban provinces. The city/province has 2.4 million inhabitants, and the urban area over 3.7 million, making Havana the largest city in both Cuba and the Caribbean region...
harbor. This event precipitated the Spanish–American War.
After
CommodoreCommodore is a military rank used in many navies for officers whose position exceeds that of a navy captain, but is less than that of a rear admiral...
George DeweyGeorge Dewey was an admiral of the United States Navy. Many historians called him the "hero of Manila." He is best known for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish-American War...
defeated the Spanish squadron at Manila, the U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines, which he did on May 19, 1898, in the hope he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. By the time U.S. land forces had arrived, the Filipinos had taken control of the entire island of Luzon, except for the walled city of
IntramurosIntramuros, located along the southern bank of the Pasig River, was built by the Spaniards in the 16th century and is the oldest district of the city of Manila, the capital of the Philippines...
. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared the independence of the Philippines in
KawitThe Municipality of Kawit is a first class urban municipality in the province of Cavite, Philippines...
,
CaviteCavite is a province of the Philippines located on the southern shores of Manila Bay in the CALABARZON region in Luzon, just 30 kilometers south of Manila. Cavite is surrounded by Laguna to the east, Metro Manila to the northeast, and Batangas to the south...
, establishing the
First Philippine RepublicThe Philippine Republic , more commonly known as the First Philippine Republic or the Malolos Republic was a short-lived insurgent government in the Philippines...
under Asia's first democratic constitution.
Simultaneously, a
GermanThe German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871 to 1918, when it became a German republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II .The term Second Reich...
squadron arrived in Manila and declared that if the United States did not seize the Philippines as a colonial possession, Germany would. In the
Battle of ManilaThe Battle of Manila was a short engagement between the United States and Spain during the Spanish-American War, not to be confused with the naval Battle of Manila Bay...
, the United States captured the city from the Spanish. This battle marked an end of Filipino-American collaboration, as Filipino forces were prevented from entering the captured city of Manila, an action deeply resented by the Filipinos. Spain and the United States sent commissioners to Paris to draw up the terms of the
Treaty of ParisThe Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed on December 10, 1898, and ended the Spanish-American War.-Background:Article V of a peace protocol entered into between United States and Spain on August 12, 1898 read as follows:...
which ended the Spanish–American War. The Filipino representative,
Felipe AgoncilloFelipe Agoncillo was the Filipino lawyer representative to the negotiations in Paris that led to the Treaty of Paris , ending the Spanish–American War and achieving him the title of "outstanding first Filipino diplomat."As a family friend and adviser of General Emilio Aguinaldo and General Antonio...
, was excluded from sessions as the revolutionary government was not recognized by the family of nations. Although there was substantial domestic opposition, the United States decided neither to return the Philippines to Spain, nor to allow Germany to annex the Philippines. In addition to
GuamGuam is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States. It is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government. The island's capital is Hagåtña...
and
Puerto RicoPuerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands...
, Spain was forced in the negotiations to hand over the Philippines to the U.S. in exchange for
US$The United States dollar is the unit of currency of the United States. The U.S. dollar is normally abbreviated as the dollar sign, $, or as USD or US$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and from others that use the $ symbol. It is divided into 100 cents .The U.S...
20,000,000.00, which U.S. characterized as "... a gift from the gods." The first Philippine Republic rebelled against the U.S. occupation, resulting in the
Philippine-American WarThe Philippine–American War, sometimes known as the Philippine War of Independence was an armed military conflict between the Philippines and the United States, which arose from the struggle of the insurgent First Philippine Republic against United States annexation of the islands...
(1899–1913).
American period (1898–1946)
Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that of two nations joined in a common struggle against Spain. As allies, Filipinos had provided the American forces with valuable intelligence and military support. However, the United States later distanced itself from the interests of the Filipino insurgents. Aguinaldo was unhappy that the United States would not commit to paper a statement of support for Philippine independence. Relations deteriorated and tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in the islands to stay.
Philippine-American War
Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899, after two American privates on patrol killed three Filipino soldiers in
San JuanThe City of San Juan or simply San Juan is a city in Metro Manila in the Philippines. Before the creation of Metro Manila, it was part of Rizal Province. Currently Metro Manila's smallest city in terms of area, San Juan is one of the smallest among the cities and municipalities in the metropolis,...
, a
ManilaThe City of Manila , or simply Manila or Maynila, is the capital of the Philippines and one of the 17 cities and municipalities that make up Metro Manila. It is located on the eastern shores of Manila Bay, on the western portion of the National Capital Region, in the western side of Luzon...
suburb. This incident sparked the
Philippine-American WarThe Philippine–American War, sometimes known as the Philippine War of Independence was an armed military conflict between the Philippines and the United States, which arose from the struggle of the insurgent First Philippine Republic against United States annexation of the islands...
, which would cost far more money and took far more lives than the Spanish–American War. Some 126,000 American soldiers would be committed to the conflict; 4,234 Americans died, as did 16,000 Filipino soldiers who were part of a nationwide guerrilla movement of indeterminate numbers. At least 34,000 Filipinos lost their lives as a direct result of the war, and as many as 200,000 may have died as a result of the
choleraCholera, sometimes known as Asiatic or epidemic cholera, is an infectious gastroenteritis caused by enterotoxin-producing strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Transmission to humans occurs through eating food or drinking water contaminated with Vibrio cholerae from other cholera patients...
epidemic at the war's end. Atrocities were committed by both sides.
The poorly-equipped Filipino troops were easily overpowered by American troops in open combat, but they were formidable opponents in guerrilla warfare.
MalolosCity of Malolos , , is a 4th class urban component city in the Republic of the Philippines. Malolos is considered as the 115th city in the country. It is the capital city of the province of Bulacan as the seat of the provincial government...
, the revolutionary capital, was captured on March 31, 1899. Aguinaldo and his government escaped however, establishing a new capital at
San Isidro, Nueva EcijaSan Isidro is a 2nd class municipality in the province of Nueva Ecija, Philippines. According to the latest Philippine census, it has a population of 44,687 people in 8,340 households.The town is between Gapan City and Cabiao.-History:...
. On June 5,1899,
Antonio LunaAntonio Luna y Novicio was a Filipino pharmacist and general who fought in the Philippine-American War. He founded the Philippines's first military academy.- Family background :...
, Aguinaldo's most capable military commander, was killed by Aguinaldo's guards in an apparent assassination while visiting Cabanatuan,
Nueva EcijaNueva Ecija is a landlocked province of the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is Palayan City...
to meet with Aguinaldo.
Gregorio del PilarGregorio del Pilar y Sempio was one of the youngest generals in the Philippine Revolutionary Forces during the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine-American War. He was called the "Boy General" because of his youth.-Early life and education:Born on November 14, 1875 to Fernando H...
, another key general, was killed on December 2, 1899 in the
Battle of Tirad PassThe Battle of Tirad Pass, sometimes referred to as the "Philippine Thermopylae", was a battle in the Philippine-American War fought on December 2, 1899, in northern Luzon in the Philippines, in which a 60-man Filipino rearguard commanded by Brigadier General Gregorio del Pilar succumbed to 500...
. With his best commanders dead and his troops suffering continued defeats as American forces pushed into northern
LuzonLuzon is the largest and most economically and politically important island in the Philippines and one of the three island groups in the country, with Visayas and Mindanao being the other two...
, Aguinaldo dissolved the regular army in November 1899 and ordered the establishment of decentralized guerrilla commands in each of several military zones. The general population, caught between Americans and rebels, suffered significantly.
Aguinaldo was captured at
Palanan, IsabelaPalanan is a remote 2nd class municipality in the province of Isabela, Philippines. According to the latest census, it has a population of 16,254 people in 2,837 households....
on March 23, 1901 and was brought to Manila. Convinced of the futility of further resistance, he swore allegiance to the United States and issued a proclamation calling on his compatriots to lay down their arms, officially bringing an end to the war. However, sporadic insurgent resistance continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially in the Muslim south, until 1913.
United States territory
The United States defined its territorial mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence. Civil government was established by the United States in 1901, with
William Howard TaftWilliam Howard Taft was the 27th President of the United States and later the 10th Chief Justice of the United States....
as the first American
Governor-General of the PhilippinesThe Governor-General of the Philippines was the title of the government executive during the colonial period of the Philippines, governed by Spain and the United States from 1565 to 1946.-Spanish Colonial Government :...
, replacing the military governor,
Arthur MacArthur, Jr.Lieutenant General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. , was a United States Army General. He became the military governor of the American-occupied Philippines in 1900 but his term ended a year later due to clashes with the civilian governor, future President William Howard Taft...
The governor-general acted as head of the
Philippine CommissionThe Philippine Commission was a body appointed by the President of the United States to exercise legislative and limited executive powers in the Philippines. It was first appointed by President William McKinley in 1901. Beginning in 1907, it acted as the upper house of a bicameral legislature, with...
, a body appointed by the U.S. president with legislative and limited executive powers. The commission passed laws to set up the fundamentals of the new government, including a judicial system, civil service, and local government. A
Philippine ConstabularyThe Philippine Constabulary ' was the oldest of the four service commands of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. It was a gendarmerie type para-military police force of the Philippines established in 1901 by the United States-appointed administrative authority...
was organized to deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement and gradually assume the responsibilities of the
United States ArmyThe United States Army is the branch of the United States Military responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military and is one of seven uniformed services...
. The elected
Philippine AssemblyThe Philippine Assembly was the legislative body of the Philippines during the earlier part U.S. colonial administration. It served as the lower house of the legislature with the Philippine Commission, headed by the U.S. Governor General serving as the upper house.-Organization:The Philippine...
was inaugurated in 1907, becoming a lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the appointed Philippine Commission as upper house.
United States policies towards the Philippines shifted with changing administrations. During the early years of territorial administration, the Americans were reluctant to delegate authority to the Filipinos. However, when
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
became
U.S. PresidentThe President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in the United States by influence and recognition...
in 1913, a new policy was adopted to put into motion a process that would gradually lead to Philippine independence. The Jones Act, passed by the
U.S. CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
in 1916 to serve as the new
organic lawAn organic law or fundamental law is a law or system of laws which forms the foundation of a government, corporation or other organization's body of rules. A constitution is a particular form of organic law for a sovereign state....
in the Philippines, promised eventual independence and instituted an elected Philippine senate.
In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. In 1895, foreign trade amounted to 62 million pesos, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66% of which was with the United States. A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the
mortality rateMortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths in some population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time. Mortality rate is typically expressed in units of deaths per 1000 individuals per year; thus, a mortality rate of 9.5 in a population of 100,000 would mean 950 deaths per...
from all causes, including various
tropical diseaseTropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions. The diseases are less prevalent in temperate climates, due in part to the occurrence of a cold season, which controls the insect population by forcing hibernation. Insects such as mosquitoes and...
s, to a level similar to that of the United States itself.
SlaverySlavery is a form of forced labor in which people are considered to be the property of others. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to receive compensation...
,
piracyPiracy is a war-like act committed by private parties that engaged in acts of robbery and/or criminal violence at sea. The term can include acts committed in other major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against persons traveling on the same vessel as the...
and
headhuntingHeadhunting is the practice of taking a person's head after killing him or her. Headhunting was practiced in historic times in parts of China, India, Nigeria, Nuristan, Myanmar, Borneo, Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan, Micronesia, Melanesia, New Zealand, and the Amazon Basin, as well as...
were all suppressed. An educational system was established which, among other subjects, provided
EnglishEnglish is a West Germanic language that developed in England during the Anglo-Saxon era. As a result of the military, economic, scientific, political, and cultural influence of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, and of the United States since the mid 20th century,...
as a
lingua franca so that the islands'
170 linguistic groupsIn the Philippines, there are over 170 languages, almost all of them belonging to the Austronesian language family. Of all of these languages, only 2 are considered official in the country, at least 10 are considered major and at least 8 are considered co-official.-National and official...
could communicate with one another and the outside world.
The 1920s saw alternating periods of cooperation and confrontation with American governors-general, depending on how intent the incumbent was on exercising his powers vis-à-vis the Philippine legislature. Members to the elected legislature lobbied for immediate and complete independence from the United States. Several independence missions were sent to
Washington, D.C.Washington, D.C. , formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States, founded on July 16, 1790...
A civil service was formed and was gradually taken over by Filipinos, who had effectively gained control by 1918.
Philippine politics during the American territorial era was dominated by the
Nacionalista PartyThe Nacionalista Party is the oldest political party in the Philippines today and was responsible for leading the country throughout the majority of the 20th century since its founding in 1907...
, which was founded in 1907. Although the party's platform called for "immediate independence", their policy toward the Americans was highly accommodating. Within the political establishment, the call for independence was spearheaded by
Manuel L. QuezonManuel Luis Quezon y Molina was the first Filipino president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines under U.S. colonial rule in the first half of the 20th century. He is considered by most Filipinos to have been the second President of the Philippines, after Emilio Aguinaldo...
, who served continuously as Senate president from 1916 until 1935.
Frank MurphyWilliam Francis Murphy was a politician and jurist from Michigan. He served as First Assistant U.S. District Attorney, Eastern Michigan District , Recorder's Court Judge, Detroit . Mayor of Detroit , the last Governor-General of the Philippines , U.S...
was the last
Governor-General of the PhilippinesThe Governor-General of the Philippines was the title of the government executive during the colonial period of the Philippines, governed by Spain and the United States from 1565 to 1946.-Spanish Colonial Government :...
(1933-35), and the first U.S. High Commissioner of the Philippines (1935-36). The change in form was more than symbolic: it was intended as a manifestation of the transition to independence.
Commonwealth
In 1933, the
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
passed the
Hare-Hawes-Cutting ActThe Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act was the first US law passed for the decolonization of the Philippines.By 1932, forces for the creation of this law coalesced around US farmers who were hit by the Great Depression and feared Filipino imports of sugar and coconut oil that were not subject to US tariff...
as a Philippine Independence Act over President
Herbert HooverHerbert Clark Hoover was the 31st President of the United States . Hoover was a professional mining engineer and author. As the United States Secretary of Commerce in the 1920s under Presidents Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge, he promoted government intervention under the rubric "economic...
's veto. Though the bill had been drafted with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, it was opposed by Philippine Senate President
Manuel L. QuezonManuel Luis Quezon y Molina was the first Filipino president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines under U.S. colonial rule in the first half of the 20th century. He is considered by most Filipinos to have been the second President of the Philippines, after Emilio Aguinaldo...
, partially because of provisions leaving the United States in control of naval bases. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill. The following year, a revised act known as the
Tydings-McDuffie ActThe Tydings-McDuffie Act approved on March 24, 1934 was a United States federal law which provided for self-government of the Philippines and for Filipino independence after a period of ten years. It was authored by Maryland Senator Millard E...
was finally passed. The act provided for the establishment of the
Commonwealth of the PhilippinesThe Commonwealth of the Philippines , , was the political designation of the Philippines from 1935 to 1946 when the country was a commonwealth with the United States. Before 1935, the Philippines was an insular area with non-commonwealth status, and before that, it had been a U.S...
with a ten-year period of peaceful transition to full independence. The commonwealth would have its own constitution and be self-governing, though foreign policy would be the responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required approval of the United States president.
A constitution was framed and approved by
Franklin D. RooseveltFranklin Delano Roosevelt , the only U.S. President elected to more than two terms, was a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war...
in March 1935. On May 14, 1935, a Filipino government was formed on the basis of principles similar to the
U.S. ConstitutionThe Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States...
. The commonwealth was established in 1935, electing
Manuel L. QuezonManuel Luis Quezon y Molina was the first Filipino president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines under U.S. colonial rule in the first half of the 20th century. He is considered by most Filipinos to have been the second President of the Philippines, after Emilio Aguinaldo...
as the president and featuring a very strong
executive}}In the study of political science the executive branch of government has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the democratic idea of the separation of powers .In many...
, a unicameral
National AssemblyThe National Assembly is either a legislature, or the lower house of a bicameral legislature in some countries. The best known National Assembly, and the first legislature to be known by this title, was that established during the French Revolution in 1789, known as the Assemblée nationale...
, and a
Supreme CourtA supreme court is in some jurisdictions the highest judicial body within that jurisdiction's court system, whose rulings are not subject to further review by another court. The designations for such courts differ among jurisdictions...
composed entirely of Filipinos for the first time since 1901.
World War II and Japanese occupation
JapanThe Empire of Japan was a Japanese political entity that existed during the period from the...
launched a surprise attack on the Clark Air Base in Pampanga, Philippines on December 8, 1941, just ten hours after the
attack on Pearl HarborThe attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Japanese navy against the United States' naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of Sunday, December 7, 1941 , later resulting in the United...
. Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon. The defending Philippine and United States troops were under the command of General
Douglas MacArthurGeneral of the Army Douglas MacArthur was an American general, United Nations general, and Field Marshal of the Philippine Army. He was a Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and later played a prominent role in the Pacific theater of World War II...
. Under the pressure of superior numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the
Bataan PeninsulaThe Bataan Peninsula is a rocky extension of the Zambales Mountains, on Luzon in the Philippines. It separates the Manila Bay from the South China Sea...
and to the island of
CorregidorCorregidor is an island in the entrance of the Philippines' Manila Bay. Due to its position in the bay, it has served as a focal point for the naval defenses of the capital city of Manila...
at the entrance to Manila Bay.
On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur declared the capital city, Manila, an
open cityIn war, in the event of the imminent capture of a city, the government/military structure of the nation that controls the city will sometimes declare it an open city, thus announcing that they have abandoned all defensive efforts. The attacking armies of the opposing military will then be expected...
to prevent its destruction, The Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April 1942 and on Corregidor in May of the same year. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous
Bataan Death MarchThe Bataan Death March took place in the Philippines in 1942 and was later accounted as a Japanese war crime. The 60-mile march occurred after the three-month Battle of Bataan, part of the Battle of the Philippines , during World War II...
to a prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. It is estimated that about 10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination.
President Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set up a government in exile. MacArthur was ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines.
The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines and established the
Philippine Executive CommissionThe Philippine Executive Commission or PEC was established on January of 1942 with Jorge B. Vargas as its first Chairman. The PEC was created as the temporary care-taker government of the Greater Manila area and eventually of the whole Philippines during the Japanese occupation of the country...
. They initially organized a
Council of StateThe Philippine Council of State is an advisory body first established during the American colonial period by Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison. It was restored during the Commonwealth of the Philippines by the administration of Manuel L. Quezon...
, through which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when they declared the Philippines an independent republic. The Japanese-sponsored republic headed by President
José P. LaurelJosé Paciano Laurel y García was the president of the Japanese-Sponsored Republic of the Philippines during World War II, from 1943 to 1945....
proved to be unpopular.
Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground and guerrilla activity. The
Philippine ArmyThe Philippine Army is the ground arm of the Armed Forces of the Philippines . Its official name in Filipino is Hukbong Katihan ng Pilipinas. As of 2008, General Hermogenes Esperon Jr. served as Chief of Staff of the AFP...
, as well as remnants of other USAFFE units, continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and was considered an auxiliary unit of the United States Army. Their effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight
provincesThe provinces of the Philippines are the primary administrative divisions of the Philippines. There are 80 provinces, further subdivided into component cities and municipalities. The National Capital Region as well as independent cities are autonomous from any provincial government...
. One element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the
HukbalahapThe Hukbalahap was the military arm of the Communist Party of the Philippines , formed in 1942 to fight the Japanese Empire's occupation of the Philippines during World War II. It fought a second war from 1946 to 1954 against the pro-Western leaders of their newly independent country...
(Filipino: "Hukbong Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon") ("People's Army Against the Japanese"), which armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over much of Luzon.
The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the end of the war. The American army had been fighting the so-called Philippines Campaign since October 1944, when it started with MacArthur's Sixth United States Army
landing on LeyteThe Battle of Leyte in the Pacific campaign of World War II was the invasion and conquest of Leyte in the Philippines by American and Filipino guerrilla forces under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, who fought against the Imperial Japanese Army in the Philippines led by General Tomoyuki...
. Landings in other parts of the country had followed, and the Allies with the Philippine Commonwealth troops pushed toward Manila. However, fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on 2 September 1945. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical destruction by the time the war was over. An estimated 1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large proportion during the final months of the war, and Manila was extensively damaged.
Independent Philippines and the Third Republic (1946–1972)
Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946-1948)
Elections were held in April 1946, with
Manuel RoxasManuel Acuña Roxas was the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. He served as president from the granting of independence in 1946 until his abrupt death in 1948...
becoming the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. The United States ceded its sovereignty over the Philippines on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. However, the
Philippine economyThe economy of the Philippines has a mixed economic system, and one of the newly industrialized emerging market economies of the world. In 2007, it was ranked as the 37th largest economy by the International Monetary Fund according to purchasing power parity. It is one of the fastest-growing...
remained highly dependent on
United States marketsThe economy of the United States is the largest national economy in the world in both nominal value and by purchasing power parity. Its nominal gross domestic product was estimated as $14.4 trillion in 2008, which is about three times that of the world's second largest economy, Japan Its GDP by...
– more dependent, according to United States high commissioner Paul McNutt, than any single
U.S. stateA U.S. state is any one of 50 federated states of the United States of America that share sovereignty with the federal government . Because of this shared sovereignty, an American is a citizen both of the federal entity and of his or her state of domicile...
was dependent on the rest of the country. The Philippine Trade Act, passed as a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the United States, exacerbated the dependency with provisions further tying the economies of the two countries. A military assistance pact was signed in 1947 granting the United States a 99-year lease on designated
military baseA military base is a facility directly owned and operated by or one of its branches that shelters military equipment and personnel, and facilitates training and operations.- Etymology :...
s in the country (the lease was later reduced to 25 years beginning 1967).
Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948-1953)
The Roxas administration granted general
amnestyAmnesty is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to the positions of innocent persons. It includes more than pardon, in as much as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the offense. The word has the same root as amnesia...
to those who had collaborated with the Japanese in World War II, except for those who had committed violent crimes. Roxas died suddenly of a heart attack in April 1948, and the vice president,
Elpidio QuirinoElpidio Rivera Quirino was a Filipino politician, and the sixth President of the Philippines.A lawyer by profession, Quirino entered politics when he became a representative of Ilocos Sur from 1919 to 1925. He was then elected as senator from 1925-1931...
, was elevated to the presidency. He ran for president in his own right in 1949, defeating
Jose P. LaurelJosé Paciano Laurel y García was the president of the Japanese-Sponsored Republic of the Philippines during World War II, from 1943 to 1945....
and winning a four-year term.
World War II had left the Philippines demoralized and severely damaged. The task of reconstruction was complicated by the activities of the
CommunistCommunism is a socioeconomic structure and political ideology that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless society based on common ownership and control of the means of production and property in general. Karl Marx posited that communism would be the final stage in human...
-supported
HukbalahapThe Hukbalahap was the military arm of the Communist Party of the Philippines , formed in 1942 to fight the Japanese Empire's occupation of the Philippines during World War II. It fought a second war from 1946 to 1954 against the pro-Western leaders of their newly independent country...
guerrillas (known as "Huks"), who had evolved into a violent resistance force against the new Philippine government. Government policy towards the Huks alternated between gestures of negotiation and harsh suppression. Secretary of Defense
Ramon MagsaysayMagsaysay redirects here, for other uses see Magsaysay .Ramon del Fierro Magsaysay was the third President of the Third Republic of the Philippines from December 30, 1953 until his death in a plane crash in 1957...
initiated a campaign to defeat the insurgents militarily and at the same time win popular support for the government. The Huk movement had waned in the early 1950s, finally ending with the unconditional surrender of Huk leader
Luis TarucLuis Taruc was a Philippine political figure and communist revolutionary. He was the leader of the Hukbalahap rebel group between 1942 and 1954. His involvement with the movement came after his initiation on the problems of agrarian Filipinos when he was a student in the early 1930s...
in May 1954.
Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953-1957)
Supported by the United States, Magsaysay was elected president in 1953 on a
populistPopulism is a political discourse that juxtaposes "the people" with "the elites." Populism may comprise an ideology urging social and political system changes and/or a rhetorical style deployed by members of political or social movements...
platform. He promised sweeping economic reform, and made progress in
land reformLand reforms is an often-controversial alteration in the societal arrangements whereby government administers possession and use of land...
by promoting the resettlement of poor people in the Catholic north into traditionally Muslim areas. Though this relieved population pressure in the north, it heightened religious hostilities. Nevertheless, he was extremely popular with the common people, and his death in an
airplane crashThe 1957 crash of a Douglas C-47 plane named "Mt. Pinatubo" on the slopes of Mount Manunggal, Cebu, Philippines, killed the 7th President of the Philippines, Ramon Magsaysay, and 24 other passengers. The crash is estimated to have occurred at 1:40:00 AM, March 17 1957, Philippine Standard Time...
in March 1957 dealt a serious blow to national morale.
Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957-1961)
Carlos P. GarciaCarlos Polístico García was a Filipino teacher, poet, orator, lawyer, public official, and guerrilla leader...
succeeded to the presidency after Magsaysay's death, and was elected to a four-year term in the election of November that same year. His administration emphasized the nationalist theme of "Filipino first", arguing that the Filipino people should be given the chances to improve the country's economy. Garcia successfully negotiated for the United States' relinquishment of large military land reservations. However, his administration lost popularity on issues of government corruption as his term advanced.
Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965)
Diosdado MacapagalDiosdado Pangan Macapagal was the 9th President of the Philippines, serving from 1961 to 1965, and the 6th Vice President of the Philippines, serving from 1957 to 1961....
was elected president in the 1961 election, defeating Garcia's re-election bid. Macapagal's foreign policy sought closer relations with neighboring Asian nations, particularly
MalayaThe Federation of Malaya , is the name given to a federation of 11 states that existed from 31 January 1948 until 16 September 1963. Comprising the nine Malay states and the British settlements of Penang and Malacca, it was eventually superseded by Malaysia.-History:From 1946 to 1948, the 11...
(later
MalaysiaMalaysia is a country in Southeast Asia that consists of thirteen states and three Federal Territories, with a total landmass of . The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. The population stands at over 28 million inhabitants...
) and
IndonesiaThe Republic of Indonesia is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With an estimated population of around 237 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, with the world's largest population of Muslims.Indonesia is a republic, with an...
. Negotiations with the United States over base rights led to anti-American sentiment. Notably, the celebration of
Independence DayAn Independence Day is an annual celebration commemorating the anniversary of a nation's assumption of independent statehood, usually after ceasing to be a colony or part of another state, more rarely after the end of a military occupation. Most countries honor their respective independence day as...
was changed from July 4 to June 12, to honor the day that
Emilio AguinaldoEmilio Aguinaldo y Famy was a Filipino general, politician, and independence leader. He played an instrumental role in Philippine independence during the Philippine Revolution against Spain and the Philippine-American War that resisted American occupation...
declared independence from Spain in 1898.
Marcos era and martial law (1965–1986)
Macapagal ran for re-election in 1965, but was defeated by his former party-mate, Senate President
Ferdinand MarcosFerdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos was President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He was a lawyer, member of the Philippine House of Representatives and a member of the Philippine Senate . He was Senate President in 1963...
, who had switched to the Nacionalista Party. Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated ambitious public works projects and intensified tax collection which brought the country economic prosperity throughout the 1970s. His administration built more roads (including a substantial portion of the
Pan-Philippine HighwayThe Pan-Philippine Highway is a 3500 km network of roads, bridges, and ferry services that connect the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao in the Philippines, serving as the country's principal transport backbone.The northern terminus of the highway is at Laoag City, and the southern...
) than all his predecessors combined, and more schools than any previous administration. Marcos was re-elected president in 1969, becoming the first president of the independent Philippines to achieve a second term.
The Philippine Legislature was corrupt and impotent. Opponents of Marcos blocked the necessary legislation to implement his ambitious plans. Because of this, optimism faded early in his second term and economic growth slowed. Crime and civil disobedience increased. The
Communist Party of the PhilippinesThe Communist Party of the Philippines is the leading communist party in the Philippines. The party was formed in a remote barangay in Alaminos, Pangasinan on December 26, 1968, following a split from the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas...
formed the
New People's ArmyThe New People's Army is the armed wing of the Communist Party of the Philippines. It was formed on March 29 1969...
. The
Moro National Liberation FrontThe Moro National Liberation Front is a political organization in the Philippines. It is accredited by the Organization of the Islamic Conference, which allows it to represent Moro people with an observer status...
continued to fight for an independent Muslim nation in Mindanao. An explosion during the proclamation rally of the senatorial slate of the
Liberal PartyThe Liberal Party of the Philippines is a liberal party in the Philippines, founded on November 24, 1945 by a breakaway from the Nacionalista Party. As such it is the second-oldest political party in the Philippines in terms of establishment, and the oldest active political party in the Philippines...
on August 21, 1971 prompted Marcos to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, which he restored on January 11, 1972 after public protests.
Martial law
Amidst the rising wave of lawlessness and the threat of a Communist insurgency, Marcos declared
martial lawMartial law is the system of rules that takes effect when the military takes control of the normal administration of justice.Martial law is sometimes imposed during wars or occupations in the absence of any other civil government. Examples of this form of military rule include Germany and Japan...
on September 21, 1972 by virtue of
Proclamation No. 1081Proclamation No. 1081 was the declaration of martial law in the Philippines dictator and President Ferdinand E. Marcos. Once in effect, it covered the entire republic on September 21, 1972...
. Marcos, ruling by decree, curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties, closed down Congress and media establishments, and ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including his staunchest critics senators
Benigno Aquino, Jr.Benigno Servillano "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr. was a Philippine Senator, Governor of Tarlac, and an opposition leader against President Ferdinand Marcos. He was assassinated at the Manila International Airport upon returning home from exile in the United States...
,
Jovito SalongaJovito "Jovy" Reyes Salonga is a Filipino nationalist politician and lawyer, as well as a leading opposition leader during the Marcos regime from 1972, when Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law, until 1986, when Marcos was deposed as a result of a bloodless revolution .-Early life and...
and
Jose DioknoJose Wright Diokno , or "Ka Pepe", was a Filipino nationalist, human rights advocate, CPA and Bar Topnotcher, lawyer, secretary of justice and senator...
. The declaration of martial law was initially well received, given the social turmoil the Philippines was experiencing. Crime rates plunged dramatically after a curfew was implemented. Many political opponents were forced to go into exile.
A
constitutional conventionA constitutional convention is a gathering for the purpose of writing a new constitution or revising an existing constitution. A general constitutional convention is called to create the first constitution of a political unit or to entirely replace an existing constitution...
, which had been called for in 1970 to replace the colonial 1935 Constitution, continued the work of framing a new constitution after the declaration of martial law. The new constitution went into effect in early 1973, changing the form of government from presidential to
parliamentaryA parliamentary system is a system of government where in the ministers of the executive branch are drawn from the legislature, and are accountable to that body, such that the executive and legislative branches are intertwined...
and allowing Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973.
Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating a "New Society" based on new social and political values. The economy during the 1970s was robust, with budgetary and trade surpluses. The Gross National Product rose from P55 billion in 1972 to P193 billion in 1980. Tourism rose, contributing to the economy's growth. However, Marcos, his cronies and his wife, Imelda Romualdez-Marcos, wilfully engaged in rampant corruption.
Fourth Republic
Appeasing the
Roman Catholic ChurchThe Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church. With more than a billion members, over half of all Christians and more than one-sixth of the world's population, the Catholic Church is a communion of the Western, or Latin Rite Church, and...
before the visit of
Pope John Paul IIPope John Paul II , born Karol Józef Wojtyła served as Supreme Pontiff of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City from 16 October 1978 until his death almost 27 years later. His was the second-longest pontificate; only Pope Pius IX served longer...
, Marcos officially lifted martial law on January 17, 1981. However, he retained much of the government's power for arrest and detention. Corruption and nepotism as well as civil unrest contributed to a serious decline in economic growth and development under Marcos, whose health declined due to
lupusLupus erythematosus is a connective tissue disease. Lupus is a chronic inflammatory disease that occurs when the body's immune system attacks its own tissues and organs. Inflammation caused by lupus can affect many different body systems, including joints, skin, kidneys, blood cells, heart, and lungs...
.
The political opposition boycotted the
1981 presidential electionsPresidential elections were held simultaneously on June 16, 1981 in the Philippines. President Ferdinand E. Marcos of the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan defeated former Gen. Alejo Santos of the Nacionalista Party in a landslide victory...
, which pitted Marcos against retired general
Alejo SantosAlejo S. Santos was a Filipino soldier and World War II hero who parlayed his fame into a political career...
. Marcos won by a margin of over 16 million votes, which constitutionally allowed him to have another six-year term. Finance Minister
Cesar VirataCesar Enrique Aguinaldo Virata is a former Prime Minister of the Philippines from 1981-1986 under the Interim Batasang Pambansa and the Regular Batasang Pambansa. One of the Philippines' business leaders and leading technocrats, he served as Finance Minister from 1970 during the Marcos regime and...
was elected as Prime Minister by the
Batasang PambansaThe Batasang Pambansa , also known by its nickname, the Batasan, was the former parliament of the Philippines, established as an interim assembly in 1978 and finally as an official body in 1984. Under the 1973 constitution, it replaced the former Congress established under the 1935 Commonwealth...
.
In 1983, opposition leader
Benigno Aquino, Jr.Benigno Servillano "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr. was a Philippine Senator, Governor of Tarlac, and an opposition leader against President Ferdinand Marcos. He was assassinated at the Manila International Airport upon returning home from exile in the United States...
was assassinated at the
Manila International AirportThe Ninoy Aquino International Airport or NAIA , is the airport serving the general area of Manila and its surrounding metropolitan area...
upon his return to the Philippines after a long period of exile. This coalesced popular dissatisfaction with Marcos and began a succession of events, including pressure from the United States, that culminated in
a snap presidential electionThe Presidential and Vice-Presidential snap elections were held on February 7, 1986 in the Philippines. President Ferdinand E. Marcos and former Foreign Affairs Minister and Senate President Arturo Tolentino were proclaimed winners by the Batasang Pambansa as well as the official election...
in February 1986. The opposition united under Aquino's widow,
Corazon AquinoMaria Corazon "Cory" Sumulong Cojuangco Aquino was the 11th President of the Philippines and the first woman to hold that office. Aquino was also the first elected female head of state in Asia...
.
The official election canvasser, the Commission on Elections (Comelec), declared Marcos the winner of the election. However, there was a large discrepancy between the Comelec results and that of Namfrel, an accredited poll watcher. The allegedly fraudulent result was rejected by Corazon Aquino and her supporters. International observers, including a U.S. delegation, denounced the official results. Gen. Fidel Ramos and Defense Minister
Juan Ponce EnrileJuan Ponce Enrile is a political figure in the Philippines. Originally a protege of late dictator Ferdinand Marcos he later became one of the leaders in the 1986 People Power Movement that drove President Ferdinand Marcos from power...
withdrew their support for Marcos. A peaceful civilian-military uprising, now popularly called the People Power Revolution, forced Marcos into exile and installed Corazon Aquino as president on February 25, 1986.
Administration of Corazon C. Aquino (1986-1992)
Corazon Aquino immediately formed a revolutionary government to normalize the situation, and provided for a transitional "Freedom Constitution". A new permanent constitution was ratified and enacted in February 1987. The constitution crippled presidential power to declare martial law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in the
CordillerasThe Cordillera Administrative Region is the Philippines' only land-locked region. It is consisted of the provinces of Abra, Apayao, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga, Mountain Province and Baguio City . The Cordillera region encompasses most of the areas within the Cordillera Central mountain range of...
and
Muslim MindanaoThe Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao is the region of the Philippines that is composed of all the Philippines' predominantly Muslim provinces, namely: Basilan , Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi, and the Philippines' only predominantly Muslim city, the Islamic City of Marawi. It...
, and restored the presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress. Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and respect for civil liberties, but Aquino's administration was also viewed as weak and fractious, and a return to full political stability and economic development was hampered by several attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the Philippine military.
Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of
Mount PinatuboMount Pinatubo is an active stratovolcano located on the island of Luzon, at the intersection of the borders of the Philippine provinces of Zambales, Tarlac, and Pampanga...
that left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless. During the Aquino presidency, Manila witnessed six unsuccessful coup attempts, the most serious occurring in December 1989.
In 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty that would have allowed a 10-year extension of the U.S. military bases in the country. The United States turned over
Clark Air BaseClark Air Base is a former United States Air Force base on Luzon Island in the Philippines, located 3 miles west of Angeles City, about 40 miles northwest of Metro Manila. Clark Air Base was an American military facility from 1903 to 1991...
in
PampangaPampanga is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is the City of San Fernando, Pampanga. Pampanga is bordered by the provinces of Bataan and Zambales to the west, Tarlac and Nueva Ecija to the north, and Bulacan to the southeast...
to the government in November, and Subic Bay Naval Base in
ZambalesZambales is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is Iba. Zambales borders Pangasinan to the north, Tarlac and Pampanga to the east, and Bataan to the south. The province lies between the South China Sea and the Zambales Mountains. With a land area of...
in December 1992, ending almost a century of U.S. military presence in the Philippines.
Administration of Fidel V. Ramos (1992-1998)
In the
1992 electionsPresidential elections, legislative elections and local elections were held in the Philippines on May 11, 1992. This was the first general elections under the 1987 Philippine Constitution. An estimated 80,000 candidates ran for 17,000 posts from the presidency down to municipal councilors...
, Defense Secretary
Fidel V. RamosFidel Valdez Ramos , also known as FVR, was the 12th President of the Philippines. He succeeded Corazon Aquino and governed until 1998, when he was succeeded by Joseph Estrada...
, endorsed by Aquino, won the presidency with just 23.6% of the vote in a field of seven candidates. Early in his administration, Ramos declared "national reconciliation" his highest priority and worked at building a coalition to overcome the divisiveness of the Aquino years. He legalized the
Communist PartyThe Communist Party of the Philippines is the leading communist party in the Philippines. The party was formed in a remote barangay in Alaminos, Pangasinan on December 26, 1968, following a split from the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas...
and laid the groundwork for talks with communist insurgents,
Muslim:A Muslim , , is an adherent of the religion of Islam. The feminine form is Muslimah . Literally, the word means "one who submits ". Muslim is the participle of the same verb of which Islam is the infinitive. Muslims believe that there is only one God, translated in Arabic as Allah...
separatists, and military rebels, attempting to convince them to cease their armed activities against the government. In June 1994, Ramos signed into law a general conditional
amnestyAmnesty is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to the positions of innocent persons. It includes more than pardon, in as much as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the offense. The word has the same root as amnesia...
covering all rebel groups, and Philippine military and police personnel accused of crimes committed while fighting the insurgents. In October 1995, the government signed an agreement bringing the military insurgency to an end. A peace agreement with the
Moro National Liberation FrontThe Moro National Liberation Front is a political organization in the Philippines. It is accredited by the Organization of the Islamic Conference, which allows it to represent Moro people with an observer status...
(MNLF), a major separatist group fighting for an independent homeland in
MindanaoMindanao is the second largest and easternmost island in the Philippines. It is also one of the three island groups in the country, along with Luzon and Visayas...
, was signed in 1996, ending the 24-year old struggle. However, an MNLF splinter group, the
Moro Islamic Liberation FrontThe Moro Islamic Liberation Front is an Islamist group located in the southern Philippines. It is one of two Islamic military groups, the other being the Abu Sayyaf, that claim belligerency against the Government of the Philippines, the United States and its supporters for political corruption...
continued the armed struggle for an Islamic state. Efforts by Ramos supporters to gain passage of an amendment that would allow him to run for a second term were met with large-scale protests, leading Ramos to declare he would not seek re-election.
Administration of Joseph Estrada (1998-2001)
Joseph EstradaJoseph Ejercito Estrada was the 13th President of the Philippines, serving from 1998 until his ouster in the 2001 EDSA Revolution....
, a former movie actor who had served as Ramos' vice president, was elected president by a landslide victory in 1998. His election campaign pledged to help the poor and develop the country's agricultural sector. He enjoyed widespread popularity, particularly among the poor. Estrada assumed office amid the Asian Financial Crisis. The economy did, however, recover from it. From a low -0.6% growth in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.4% by 1999. Like his predecessor there was a similar attempt to change the 1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or Constitutional Correction for Development. Unlike Charter change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal, according to its proponents, would only amend the 'restrictive' economic provisions of the constitution that is considered as impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the Philippines. However it was not successful in amending the constitution.
In March 21, 2000 President Estrada declared an "all-out-war" against the
Moro Islamic Liberation FrontThe Moro Islamic Liberation Front is an Islamist group located in the southern Philippines. It is one of two Islamic military groups, the other being the Abu Sayyaf, that claim belligerency against the Government of the Philippines, the United States and its supporters for political corruption...
(MILF) after the worsening secessionist movement in Midanao The government later captured 46 MILF camps including the MILF's headquarters', Camp Abubakar. In October 2000, however, Estrada was accused of having accepted millions of pesos in payoffs from illegal gambling businesses. He was
impeachedImpeachment is the first of two stages in a specific process for a legislative body to consider whether or not to forcibly remove a government official from office. The impeachment itself brings the charges against the official...
by the House of Representatives, but his impeachment trial in the Senate broke down when the senate voted to block examination of the president's bank records. In response, massive street protests erupted demanding Estrada's resignation. Faced with street protests, cabinet resignations, and a withdrawal of support from the armed forces, Estrada was forced from office on January 20, 2001.
Administration of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2001-2010)
Vice President
Gloria Macapagal-ArroyoMaria Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo is the fourteenth and current president of the Philippines. Arroyo is the country's second female president, and the daughter of late former Philippine President Diosdado Macapagal....
(the daughter of the late President
Diosdado MacapagalDiosdado Pangan Macapagal was the 9th President of the Philippines, serving from 1961 to 1965, and the 6th Vice President of the Philippines, serving from 1957 to 1961....
) was sworn in as Estrada's successor on the day of his departure. Her accession to power was further legitimized by the mid-term congressional and local elections held four months later, when her coalition won an overwhelming victory. Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion.
Arroyo had declared in December 2002 that she would not run in the May 2004 presidential election, but she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to join the race. She was re-elected and sworn in for her own six-year term as president on June 30, 2004. In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently asking an election official if her margin of victory could be maintained. The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo's resignation. Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an election official, but denied allegations of fraud and refused to step down. Attempts to impeach the president failed later that year.
Arroyo currently spearheads a controversial plan for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the present presidential-bicameral republic into a federal parliamentary-unicameral form of government.
See also
- Timeline of Philippine history
This is a timeline of Philippine history. To know more about the background of these events, re-read the history of the Philippines article. For the country, see Philippines.-Pre-historic:...
- Military history of the Philippines
-Battle of Mactan:The Battle of Mactan on April 21, 1521 is the earliest reported resistance of the natives in the Philippines against foreign invaders...
- Philippine presidential election, 2010
The Philippine presidential election of 2010 is the next Philippine presidential election, to be held on Monday, May 10, 2010. The incumbent President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo is barred from seeking re-election pursuant to the Constitution of the Philippines...
- Telecommunications in the Philippines
- Transportation in the Philippines
- Land transportation :* Light Rail Transit , from Monumento, Caloocan City to Baclaran, Parañaque City. The LRT-1 plans to extend up to North Avenue, Quezon City. The extension project is currently underconstruction along EDSA...
- Demographics of the Philippines
Demographics of the Philippines are records of human population in the country, including its population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population. According to the 2000 Census, the population of the Philippines was...
- Filipino nationalism
Filipino Nationalism is an upsurge of patriotic sentiments and nationalistic ideals in the Philippines of the 19th century that came consequently as a result of more than two centuries of Spanish rule and as an immediate outcome of the Filipino Propaganda Movement from 1872 to 1892...
External links
- Official government portal of the Republic of the Philippines.
- National Histroical Institute.
- The United States and its Territories 1870–1925: The Age of Imperialism.
- Origins of the Filipinos and Their Languages by Wilhelm G. Solheim II (PDF).
- History of the Philippine Islands by Morga, Antonio de in 55 volumes, from Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks." Founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart, it is the oldest digital library. Most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain...
. Translated into English, edited and annotated by E. H. Blair and J. A. Robertson. Volumes 1–14 and 15–25 indexed under Blair, Emma Helen.
- Philippine Society and Revolution.
- The Brown Raise Movement - contains social commentaries by Jose Rizal, Apolinario Mabini, and F. Sionil Jose