Doughnut theory of the universe
Encyclopedia
The doughnut theory of the universe is an informal description of the theory that the shape of the universe
is a three-dimensional torus. The name comes from the shape of a doughnut
, whose surface has the topology of a two-dimensional torus
.
The foundation for the doughnut theory started with Bell Lab’s discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB). With the information provided from the study of CMB, Dr. Alexi Starobinski conceived the doughnut theory of the universe along with his mentor, Dr. Yakov B. Zeldovich, in 1984 from the Landau Institute in Moscow.
began in the mid-1960s with the discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB) by Bell Labs
. Greater understanding of the universe's CMB provided greater understanding of the universe's geometry; therefore, in a quest for cosmic understanding, NASA
supported two explorer satellites, the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) in 1989 and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) in 2001, which have gathered more information on CMB.
launched in 1989 by NASA
that used a Far Infrared Absolute Spectrometer (FIRAS) to measure the radiation of the universe. Led by researchers John Mather
and George Smoot
, COBE was able to obtain precise readings of radiation frequencies across the universe. With data on the universe’s radiation distribution, Mather and Smoot discovered small discrepancies in temperature
fluctuation known as anisotropies throughout the universe. The finding of anisotropies led Mather and Smoot to conclude the universe consists of regions of varying densities. In the early stages of the universe, these denser regions of the cosmos were responsible for attracting the matter that ultimately became galaxies and solar systems. In “Microwave Background Anisotropy in a Toroidal Universe” by Daniel Stevens, Douglas Scott, and Joseph Silk of University of California Berkeley, the cosmologists proposed the isotropic universe suggests a complicated geometric structure. The researchers argued the density fluctuations reported by COBE proved “multiply connected universes are possible, [and] the simplest [and most probable multiply connected universe] is the three-dimensional torus.” Additionally, the journal concludes a torus shaped universe is compatible with COBE data if the diameter of the torus' tube is at least 80% greater than the torus’ horizontal diameter
. Thus, COBE provided researchers with the first concrete evidence of the doughnut theory. COBE was eventually decommissioned by NASA on December 23, 1993.
The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) was launched in 2001 as NASA’s second explorer satellite
intended to map the precise distribution of CMB across the universe. Improving on the design of COBE, WMAP was able to represent an extremely accurate, fine resolution map of the universe’s CMB. Such accuracy of WMAP’s CMB charts provided cosmologists with new data to analyze. The analysis of WMAP data in “A high resolution foreground cleaned CMB map from WMAP” by Max Tegmark, Ange ́lica de Oliveira-Costa, and Andrew J. S. Hamilton of University of Colorado
provides further evidence of a doughnut shaped universe. The research team discovered that if the WMAP CMB map is analyzed while eliminating the radiation from stars and our own galaxy, the CMB of the universe appears more concentrated in one direction than the other. This concentration of CMB forms a straight line in the universe, which is believed to be characteristic of a compact, finite universe. Tegmark proposes that if his data does prove the universe is finite, then the amount of radiation in one area would be limited to size of the area in that direction. If the radiation exceeded the size of that area, the universe would overflow in that direction creating a plane in other directions. The perpendicular to the direction of the plane would create the loop of the doughnut, or torus. Therefore, Tegmark suggests a torus geometry is the most probable shape consistent to his analysis of WMAP CMB maps.
Shape of the Universe
The shape of the universe is a matter of debate in physical cosmology over the local and global geometry of the universe which considers both curvature and topology, though, strictly speaking, it goes beyond both...
is a three-dimensional torus. The name comes from the shape of a doughnut
Doughnut
A doughnut or donut is a fried dough food and is popular in many countries and prepared in various forms as a sweet snack that can be homemade or purchased in bakeries, supermarkets, food stalls, and franchised specialty outlets...
, whose surface has the topology of a two-dimensional torus
Torus
In geometry, a torus is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three dimensional space about an axis coplanar with the circle...
.
The foundation for the doughnut theory started with Bell Lab’s discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB). With the information provided from the study of CMB, Dr. Alexi Starobinski conceived the doughnut theory of the universe along with his mentor, Dr. Yakov B. Zeldovich, in 1984 from the Landau Institute in Moscow.
Supporting evidence
Dr. Alexi Starobinski first proposed the doughnut theory of the universe along with his mentor, Dr. Yakov B. Zeldovich in 1984 from the Landau Institute in Moscow; however, the basis for his theory began much earlier than 1984. The foundation for any knowledge of the shape of the universeShape of the Universe
The shape of the universe is a matter of debate in physical cosmology over the local and global geometry of the universe which considers both curvature and topology, though, strictly speaking, it goes beyond both...
began in the mid-1960s with the discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB) by Bell Labs
Bell Labs
Bell Laboratories is the research and development subsidiary of the French-owned Alcatel-Lucent and previously of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company , half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary.Bell Laboratories operates its...
. Greater understanding of the universe's CMB provided greater understanding of the universe's geometry; therefore, in a quest for cosmic understanding, NASA
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
supported two explorer satellites, the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) in 1989 and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe — also known as the Microwave Anisotropy Probe , and Explorer 80 — is a spacecraft which measures differences in the temperature of the Big Bang's remnant radiant heat — the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation — across the full sky. Headed by Professor...
(WMAP) in 2001, which have gathered more information on CMB.
Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)
The Cosmic Background Explorer was an explorer satelliteSatellite
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavour. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Moon....
launched in 1989 by NASA
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
that used a Far Infrared Absolute Spectrometer (FIRAS) to measure the radiation of the universe. Led by researchers John Mather
John Mather
John Norman Mather is a mathematician at Princeton University known for his work on singularity theory and Hamiltonian dynamics...
and George Smoot
George Smoot
George Fitzgerald Smoot III is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist, Nobel laureate, and $1 million TV quiz show prize winner . He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for his work on COBE with John C...
, COBE was able to obtain precise readings of radiation frequencies across the universe. With data on the universe’s radiation distribution, Mather and Smoot discovered small discrepancies in temperature
Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot...
fluctuation known as anisotropies throughout the universe. The finding of anisotropies led Mather and Smoot to conclude the universe consists of regions of varying densities. In the early stages of the universe, these denser regions of the cosmos were responsible for attracting the matter that ultimately became galaxies and solar systems. In “Microwave Background Anisotropy in a Toroidal Universe” by Daniel Stevens, Douglas Scott, and Joseph Silk of University of California Berkeley, the cosmologists proposed the isotropic universe suggests a complicated geometric structure. The researchers argued the density fluctuations reported by COBE proved “multiply connected universes are possible, [and] the simplest [and most probable multiply connected universe] is the three-dimensional torus.” Additionally, the journal concludes a torus shaped universe is compatible with COBE data if the diameter of the torus' tube is at least 80% greater than the torus’ horizontal diameter
Diameter
In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints are on the circle. The diameters are the longest chords of the circle...
. Thus, COBE provided researchers with the first concrete evidence of the doughnut theory. COBE was eventually decommissioned by NASA on December 23, 1993.
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe — also known as the Microwave Anisotropy Probe , and Explorer 80 — is a spacecraft which measures differences in the temperature of the Big Bang's remnant radiant heat — the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation — across the full sky. Headed by Professor...
(WMAP) was launched in 2001 as NASA’s second explorer satellite
Satellite
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavour. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Moon....
intended to map the precise distribution of CMB across the universe. Improving on the design of COBE, WMAP was able to represent an extremely accurate, fine resolution map of the universe’s CMB. Such accuracy of WMAP’s CMB charts provided cosmologists with new data to analyze. The analysis of WMAP data in “A high resolution foreground cleaned CMB map from WMAP” by Max Tegmark, Ange ́lica de Oliveira-Costa, and Andrew J. S. Hamilton of University of Colorado
University of Colorado
The University of Colorado system is a system of public universities in Colorado consisting of three universities in four campuses: University of Colorado Boulder, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, and University of Colorado Denver in downtown Denver and at the Anschutz Medical Campus in...
provides further evidence of a doughnut shaped universe. The research team discovered that if the WMAP CMB map is analyzed while eliminating the radiation from stars and our own galaxy, the CMB of the universe appears more concentrated in one direction than the other. This concentration of CMB forms a straight line in the universe, which is believed to be characteristic of a compact, finite universe. Tegmark proposes that if his data does prove the universe is finite, then the amount of radiation in one area would be limited to size of the area in that direction. If the radiation exceeded the size of that area, the universe would overflow in that direction creating a plane in other directions. The perpendicular to the direction of the plane would create the loop of the doughnut, or torus. Therefore, Tegmark suggests a torus geometry is the most probable shape consistent to his analysis of WMAP CMB maps.