Blueberries are
flowering plantThe flowering plants , also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies...
s of the
genusIn biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
VacciniumVaccinium is a genus of shrubs or dwarf shrubs in the plant Family Ericaceae. The fruit of many species are eaten by humans and some are of commercial importance, including the cranberry, blueberry, bilberry or whortleberry, lingonberry or cowberry, and huckleberry...
(a genus which also includes
cranberriesCranberries are a group of evergreen dwarf shrubs or trailing vines in the subgenus Oxycoccus of the genus Vaccinium. In some methods of classification, Oxycoccus is regarded as a genus in its own right...
and
bilberriesBilberry is any of several species of low-growing shrubs in the genus Vaccinium , bearing edible berries. The species most often referred to is Vaccinium myrtillus L., but there are several other closely related species....
) with dark-blue berries and are perennial.
SpeciesIn biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
in the
sectionIn botany, a section is a taxonomic rank below the genus, but above the species. The subgenus, if present, is higher than the section, and the rank of series, if present, is below the section. Sections are typically used to help organise very large genera, which may have hundreds of species...
Cyanococcus are the most common fruits sold as "blueberries" and are native to
North AmericaNorth America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
(commercially cultivated highbush blueberries were not introduced into Europe until the 1930s).
They are usually erect but sometimes
prostrateA prostrate shrub is a woody plant, most of the branches of which lie upon or just under the ground, rather than being held erect as are the branches of most trees and shrubs....
shrubA shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, usually under 5–6 m tall. A large number of plants may become either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience...
s varying in size from 10 centimetres (3.9 in) to 4 metres (157.5 in) tall. In commercial blueberry production, smaller species are known as "lowbush blueberries" (synonymous with "wild"), and the larger species are known as "highbush blueberries".
The
leavesA leaf is an organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms, and in particular in plant morphology. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves as a feature of plants....
can be either
deciduousDeciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
or
evergreenIn botany, an evergreen plant is a plant that has leaves in all seasons. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season.There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs...
, ovate to lanceolate, and 1–8 cm (0.393700787401575–3.1 in) long and 0.5–3.5 cm (0.196850393700787–1.4 in) broad. The
flowerA flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants . The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs...
s are bell-shaped, white, pale pink or red, sometimes tinged greenish.
The
fruitIn broad terms, a fruit is a structure of a plant that contains its seeds.The term has different meanings dependent on context. In non-technical usage, such as food preparation, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of certain plants that are sweet and edible in the raw state,...
is a
berryThe botanical definition of a berry is a fleshy fruit produced from a single ovary. Grapes are an example. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire ovary wall ripens into an edible pericarp. They may have one or more carpels with a thin covering and fleshy interiors....
5–16 mm (0.196850393700787–0.62992125984252 in) diameter with a flared crown at the end; they are pale greenish at first, then reddish-purple, and finally dark blue when ripe. They have a sweet taste when mature, with variable acidity. Blueberry bushes typically bear fruit in the middle of the growing season: fruiting times are affected by local conditions such as altitude and latitude, so the height of the crop can vary from May to August depending upon these conditions.
Origins
The genus
VacciniumVaccinium is a genus of shrubs or dwarf shrubs in the plant Family Ericaceae. The fruit of many species are eaten by humans and some are of commercial importance, including the cranberry, blueberry, bilberry or whortleberry, lingonberry or cowberry, and huckleberry...
has a mostly circumpolar distribution with species in America, Europe and Asia, but also Africa.
Many commercially sold species English
common nameA common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
s include "blueberry" are currently classified in section Cyanoooccus of the genus Vaccinium and come predominantly from North America. Many North American native species of blueberries are now also commercially grown in the Southern Hemisphere in Australia, New Zealand and South American countries.
Several other wild shrubs of the genus Vaccinium also produce commonly eaten blue berries such as the predominantly European
bilberryBilberry is any of several species of low-growing shrubs in the genus Vaccinium , bearing edible berries. The species most often referred to is Vaccinium myrtillus L., but there are several other closely related species....
(Vaccinium myrtillus), which in many languages has a name that means "blueberry" in English. See the Identification section for more information.
Species
Note: habitat and range summaries are from the Flora of New Brunswick, published in 1986 by Harold R. Hinds and Plants of the Pacific Northwest coast, published in 1994 by Pojar and MacKinnon
- Vaccinium alaskaense (Alaskan blueberry): one of the dominant shrubs in Alaskan and British Columbian coastal forests
- Vaccinium angustifolium
Vaccinium angustifolium, commonly known as the Lowbush Blueberry, is a species of blueberry native to eastern and central Canada and the northeastern United States, growing as far south as West Virginia and west to the Great Lakes region, Minnesota and Manitoba...
(lowbush blueberry): acidic barrens, bogs and clearings, Manitoba to Labrador, south to Nova Scotia and in the USA, to Iowa and Virginia
- Vaccinium boreale (northern blueberry): peaty barrens, Quebec and Labrador (rare in New Brunswick), south to New York and Massachusetts
- Vaccinium caesariense
Vaccinium caesariense, New Jersey Blueberry, is native to the Eastern United States. It is a species in the genus Vaccinium, which includes blueberries, cranberries, huckleberry, and bilberries, all flowering plants or angiosperms.-Range:...
(New Jersey blueberry)
- Vaccinium cyanococcus (American blueberry)
- Vaccinium corymbosum
Northern highbush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum, is a species of blueberry native to eastern North America, from Nova Scotia and Ontario south to Alabama, and west to Wisconsin...
(northern highbush blueberry)
- Vaccinium darrowii
Vaccinium darrowii, Darrow's Blueberry, Evergreen Blueberry, Scrub Blueberry, or Southern Highbush Blueberry, is a species of Vaccinium in the blueberry group .-Distribution:...
(southern highbush blueberry)
- Vaccinium elliottii
Vaccinum elliottii is a species of Vaccinium in the blueberry group . It is native to the Southeastern United States, from southeastern Virginia south to Florida, and west to Arkansas and Texas.-Growth:Vaccinium elliottii is a deciduous shrub 2-4 m tall, with small, simple ovoid-acute leaves...
(Elliott blueberry)
- Vaccinium formosum (southern blueberry)
|
Vaccinium fuscatum (black highbush blueberry; syn. V. atrococcum)
Vaccinium hirsutum (hairy-fruited blueberry)
Vaccinium myrtilloides (sour top, velvet leaf, or Canadian blueberry): clearings, thickets and peat bogs, Northwest Territories (Canada) to Labrador, south to Nova Scotia, and Montana to Virginia
Vaccinium operium (cyan-fruited blueberry)
Vaccinium pallidum (dryland blueberry)
Vaccinium simulatum (upland highbush blueberry)
Vaccinium tenellum (southern blueberry)
Vaccinium virgatumRabbiteye Blueberry is a species of blueberry native to the Southeastern United States, from North Carolina south to Florida and west to Texas...
(rabbiteye blueberry; syn. V. ashei) |
Some other blue-fruited species of Vaccinium:
- Vaccinium koreanum
- Vaccinium myrsinites (evergreen blueberry)
- Vaccinium myrtillus
Vaccinium myrtillus is an almost Holarctic species of shrub with edible fruit, usually simply referred to as "bilberry" or "whortleberry". It is more precidely called Common Bilberry or Blue Whortleberry, to distinguish it from its Vaccinium relatives...
(bilberryBilberry is any of several species of low-growing shrubs in the genus Vaccinium , bearing edible berries. The species most often referred to is Vaccinium myrtillus L., but there are several other closely related species....
)
- Vaccinium uliginosum
Vaccinium uliginosum is a flowering plant in the genus Vaccinium.-Distribution:Vaccinium uliginosum is native to cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, at low altitudes in the Arctic, and at high altitudes south to the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Caucasus in Europe, the mountains of...
Identification
Commercially offered "wild blueberries" are usually from species that naturally occur only in eastern and north-central North America. Other sections in the genus, native to other parts of the world, including western North America, South America, Europe, and Asia, include other wild shrubs producing similar-looking edible berries, such as
huckleberriesHuckleberry is a common name used in North America for several species of plants in two closely related genera in the family Ericaceae:* Vaccinium* GaylussaciaHuckleberry may also refer to:-Plants:...
(North America) and bilberries (Europe). These species are sometimes called "blueberries" and sold as blueberry jam or other products.
The names of blue berries in languages other than English often translate as "blueberry", e.g., Scots blaeberry and Norwegian blåbær. Blaeberry, blåbær and French myrtilles usually refer to the European native
bilberryBilberry is any of several species of low-growing shrubs in the genus Vaccinium , bearing edible berries. The species most often referred to is Vaccinium myrtillus L., but there are several other closely related species....
(
V. myrtillusVaccinium myrtillus is an almost Holarctic species of shrub with edible fruit, usually simply referred to as "bilberry" or "whortleberry". It is more precidely called Common Bilberry or Blue Whortleberry, to distinguish it from its Vaccinium relatives...
), while bleuets refers to the North American blueberry.
Cyanococcus blueberries can be distinguished from the nearly identical looking bilberries by cutting them in half. Ripe blueberries have white or light green flesh, while bilberries and huckleberries are red or purple throughout. Bilberries are most often found singularly or in pairs, while blueberries are most often found in clusters.
Cultivation
Blueberries may be cultivated, or they may be picked from semi-wild or wild bushes. In North America, the most common cultivated species is V. corymbosum, the
Northern highbush blueberryNorthern highbush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum, is a species of blueberry native to eastern North America, from Nova Scotia and Ontario south to Alabama, and west to Wisconsin...
. Hybrids of this with other Vaccinium species adapted to southern U.S. climates are known collectively as Southern highbush blueberries.
So-called "wild" (lowbush) blueberries, smaller than cultivated highbush ones, are prized for their intense color. The
lowbush blueberryVaccinium angustifolium, commonly known as the Lowbush Blueberry, is a species of blueberry native to eastern and central Canada and the northeastern United States, growing as far south as West Virginia and west to the Great Lakes region, Minnesota and Manitoba...
, V. angustifolium, is found from the Atlantic provinces westward to
QuebecQuebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
and southward to
MichiganMichigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....
and
West VirginiaWest Virginia is a state in the Appalachian and Southeastern regions of the United States, bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the northeast and Maryland to the east...
. In some areas, it produces natural "blueberry barrens", where it is the dominant species covering large areas. Several
First NationsFirst Nations is a term that collectively refers to various Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. There are currently over 630 recognised First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. The...
communities in
OntarioOntario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....
are involved in harvesting wild blueberries. Lowbush species are fire-tolerant and blueberry production often increases following a
forest fireA wildfire is any uncontrolled fire in combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area. Other names such as brush fire, bushfire, forest fire, desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, squirrel fire, vegetation fire, veldfire, and wilkjjofire may be used to describe the same...
, as the plants regenerate rapidly and benefit from removal of competing vegetation.
"Wild" has been adopted as a marketing term for harvests of managed native stands of low-bush blueberries. The bushes are not planted or genetically manipulated, but they are pruned or burned over every two years, and pests are "managed".
There are numerous highbush
cultivarA cultivar'Cultivar has two meanings as explained under Formal definition. When used in reference to a taxon, the word does not apply to an individual plant but to all those plants sharing the unique characteristics that define the cultivar. is a plant or group of plants selected for desirable...
s of blueberries, each of which have a unique flavor, with diversity between them. The most important blueberry breeding program has been the USDA-ARS breeding program based at Beltsville, Maryland, and Chatsworth, New Jersey. This program began when Frederick Coville of the USDA-ARS collaborated with
Elizabeth Coleman WhiteElizabeth Coleman White was a New Jersey agricultural specialist who collaborated with Frank Coville to develop and commercialize a cultivated blueberry. -Biography:...
of
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. , its population was 8,791,894. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania and on the southwest by Delaware...
. In the early part of the 20th century, White offered pineland residents cash for wild blueberry plants with unusually large fruit. Rubel, one such wild blueberry cultivar, is the origin of many of the current hybrid cultivars.
The
rabbiteye blueberryRabbiteye Blueberry is a species of blueberry native to the Southeastern United States, from North Carolina south to Florida and west to Texas...
(Vaccinium virgatum syn. V. ashei) is a southern type of blueberry produced from
the CarolinasThe Carolinas is a term used in the United States to refer collectively to the states of North and South Carolina. Together, the two states + have a population of 13,942,126. "Carolina" would be the fifth most populous state behind California, Texas, New York, and Florida...
to the
Gulf CoastThe Gulf Coast of the United States, sometimes referred to as the Gulf South, South Coast, or 3rd Coast, comprises the coasts of American states that are on the Gulf of Mexico, which includes Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida and are known as the Gulf States...
states. Other important species in North America include V. pallidum, the hillside or dryland blueberry. It is native to the eastern U.S., and common in the
AppalachiansThe Appalachian Mountains #Whether the stressed vowel is or ,#Whether the "ch" is pronounced as a fricative or an affricate , and#Whether the final vowel is the monophthong or the diphthong .), often called the Appalachians, are a system of mountains in eastern North America. The Appalachians...
and the
PiedmontThe Piedmont is a plateau region located in the eastern United States between the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the main Appalachian Mountains, stretching from New Jersey in the north to central Alabama in the south. The Piedmont province is a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian division...
of the Southeast. Sparkleberry, V. arboreum, is a common wild species on sandy soils in the Southeast. Its fruits are important to wildlife, and the flowers are important to beekeepers.
Growing areas
Significant production of highbush blueberries occurs in
British ColumbiaBritish Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu . Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858...
,
MarylandMaryland is a U.S. state located in the Mid Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and Delaware to its east...
,
Western OregonWestern Oregon is a geographical term that is generally taken to mean the part of Oregon within 120 miles of the Oregon Coast, on the west side of the crest of the Cascade Range. The term is applied somewhat loosely however, and is sometimes taken to exclude the southwestern areas of the state,...
,
MichiganMichigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....
,
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. , its population was 8,791,894. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania and on the southwest by Delaware...
,
North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
, and Washington. The production of southern highbush varieties in
CaliforniaCalifornia is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
is rapidly increasing, as varieties originating from the
University of FloridaThe University of Florida is an American public land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant research university located on a campus in Gainesville, Florida. The university traces its historical origins to 1853, and has operated continuously on its present Gainesville campus since September 1906...
((Conneticut)) ((New Hampshire))
North Carolina State UniversityNorth Carolina State University at Raleigh is a public, coeducational, extensive research university located in Raleigh, North Carolina, United States. Commonly known as NC State, the university is part of the University of North Carolina system and is a land, sea, and space grant institution...
and ((Maine)) have been introduced. Southern highbush berries are now also cultivated in the Mediterranean regions of Europe,
Southern HemisphereThe Southern Hemisphere is the part of Earth that lies south of the equator. The word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' or "half sphere"...
countries and China.
United States
MaineMaine is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east and south, New Hampshire to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Quebec to the northwest and New Brunswick to the northeast. Maine is both the northernmost and easternmost...
produces 25% of all lowbush blueberries in North America, making it the largest producer in the world. Maine's 24291 hectares (60,024.3 acre) (FAO figures) of blueberry were propagated from native plants that occur naturally in the
understoryUnderstory is the term for the area of a forest which grows at the lowest height level below the forest canopy. Plants in the understory consist of a mixture of seedlings and saplings of canopy trees together with understory shrubs and herbs...
of its coastal forests. The Maine crop requires about 50,000
beehivesA beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus Apis live and raise their young. Natural beehives are naturally occurring structures occupied by honeybee colonies, while domesticated honeybees live in man-made beehives, often in an apiary. These man-made...
for
pollinationPollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in plants, thereby enabling fertilisation and sexual reproduction. Pollen grains transport the male gametes to where the female gamete are contained within the carpel; in gymnosperms the pollen is directly applied to the ovule itself...
, with most of the hives being trucked in from other states for that purpose. Many towns in Maine lay claim to being the blueberry capital, and several festivals are centered around the blueberry. The wild blueberry is the official fruit of Maine and is often as much a symbol of Maine as the lobster. While Maine is the leader of lowbush blueberry production in the United States,
MichiganMichigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....
is the leader in highbush production. In 1998, Michigan farms produced 220000 tonnes (485,016,976.8 lb) of blueberries, accounting for 32% of the small, round berries eaten in the United States.
Significant acreages of highbush blueberries are cultivated in the states of
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. , its population was 8,791,894. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania and on the southwest by Delaware...
,
FloridaFlorida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
,
GeorgiaGeorgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
and
North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
.
Canada
Canadian exports of blueberries in 2007 were C$323 million, the largest fruit crop produced nationally, occupying more than half of all Canadian fruit acreage. Among the most productive growing regions in the world, British Columbia is the largest Canadian producer of highbush blueberries, yielding 29000 t (63,934,056 lb) in 2004 and over C$100 million in 2008 revenues.
QuebecQuebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
produces a large quantity of wild blueberries, especially in the regions of
Saguenay-Lac-Saint-JeanSaguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean is a region in Quebec, Canada. It contains the Saguenay Fjord, the estuary of the Saguenay River, stretching through much of the region...
(where a popular name for inhabitants of the regions is bleuets, or "blueberries"), and
Côte-NordCôte-Nord is the second largest administrative region by land area in Quebec, Canada, after Nord-du-Québec...
which together provide 40% of
QuebecQuebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
's total provincial production. Due in part to declining frequency and intensity of spring frosts, Quebec's wild blueberry production 27000 t (59,524,810.8 lb) in 2008 now rivals that of Maine, creating cross-border tensions on pricing and regional markets.
Nova ScotiaNova Scotia is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The name of the province is Latin for "New Scotland," but "Nova Scotia" is the recognized, English-language name of the province. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the...
, the biggest producer of wild blueberries in Canada, recognizes the blueberry as its official provincial berry. The town of
OxfordOxford is a town in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, Canada east of Amherst. The town is directly serviced by Routes 104, 204, 301, and 321.-History:...
is known as the Wild Blueberry Capital of Canada.
New BrunswickNew Brunswick is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the only province in the federation that is constitutionally bilingual . The provincial capital is Fredericton and Saint John is the most populous city. Greater Moncton is the largest Census Metropolitan Area...
and
Prince Edward IslandPrince Edward Island is a Canadian province consisting of an island of the same name, as well as other islands. The maritime province is the smallest in the nation in both land area and population...
are other Atlantic provinces with major wild blueberry farming.
Atlantic CanadaAtlantic Canada is the region of Canada comprising the four provinces located on the Atlantic coast, excluding Quebec: the three Maritime provinces – New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia – and Newfoundland and Labrador...
contributes approximately half of the total North American annual production of 68000 t (149,914,338.3 lb), a threefold increase since the 1980s. Gains in yield derived from improved field management, including better weed control, fertility management and irrigation methods, increased use of bees for pollination, and application of mechanical harvesters.
Europe
Highbush blueberries were first introduced to
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and the
NetherlandsThe Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
in the 1930s, and have since been spread to
PolandPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
,
ItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
,
HungaryHungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
and other countries of Europe.
"Many growers in France, Austria, and Italy realized too that it pays to cultivate highbush blueberries, and that good economic gain can be obtained," according to an industry researcher. "Even in Belgium and Norway, some very promising trials with special methods of blueberry cultivation resulted in a limited commercial production which is very successful. …Except in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Spain, a blueberry industry is developing in all regions where the production is possible due to the climatic and edaphic conditions…"
Asia
The northeastern part of
TurkeyTurkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
is one of the main sources of Caucasian whortleberry (V. arctostaphylos),
bilberryBilberry is any of several species of low-growing shrubs in the genus Vaccinium , bearing edible berries. The species most often referred to is Vaccinium myrtillus L., but there are several other closely related species....
(V. myrtillus) and bog blueberry, bog whortleberry or bog bilberry (V. uliginosum). Little-known wild blueberries, with various names, such as likapa, ligarba, kaskanaka, çela, morsvi, lifos, çalı çileği, ayı üzümü, and çoban üzümü, grow in this area. This region from Artvin to Kırklareli, as well as parts of Bursa (including Rize, Trabzon, Ordu, Giresun, Samsun, Sinop, and of Kastamonu, Zonguldak, İstanbul, İzmit and Adapazari) has rainy, humid growing periods and natural acidic soils which are suitable for blueberries (Çelik, 2005, 2006 and 2007). Native Vaccinium species and open-pollinated types have been grown for over a hundred years around the Black Sea region of Turkey. These native blueberries are eaten locally as jelly, dried or fresh fruit and also by those in the Black Sea region (Çelik, 2005). These are not cultivated; wild berries grow naturally on the hills, plateaus and forests. On the other hand, highbush blueberry cultivation started around the year 2000. The first commercial blueberry orchard was established by Osman Nuri Yildiz and supervised by Dr. Huseyin Celik, who is the founder of Turkish blueberry cultivation.
Southern Hemisphere
In the Southern Hemisphere,
ChileChile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
,
ArgentinaArgentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
,
UruguayUruguay ,officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay,sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; ) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area...
, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia now export blueberries.
Blueberries were first introduced to Australia in the 1950s, but the effort was unsuccessful. In the early 1970s, David Jones from the Victorian Department of Agriculture imported seed from the U.S. and a selection trial was started. This work was continued by Ridley Bell, who imported more American varieties. In the mid-1970s, the Australian Blueberry Growers Association was formed. (Clayton-Greene)
By the early 1980s, the blueberry industry was started in New Zealand and is still growing. (BNZ, n.d)
South Africa exports blueberries to Europe.
The industry is even newer in Argentina: "Argentine blueberry production has increased over the last three years with planted area up to 400 percent", according to a 2005 report by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, but that increase comes from a tiny base of 400 hectares (988.4 acre) in 2001 and 1600 hectares (3,953.7 acre) in 2004. The industry is new in the country and farmers are still learning the business. "Argentine blueberry production has thrived in four different regions: the province of Entre Rios in northeastern Argentina, the province of Tucuman, the province of Buenos Aires, near the country’s capital city Buenos Aires, and the southern Patagonian valleys", according to the report.
ChileChile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
is the biggest producer in South America and the largest exporter to the Northern Hemisphere, with an estimated area of 6800 hectares (16,803.2 acre) (as of 2007). Introduction of the first plants started in the early 1980s and production started in the late 80s in the southern part of the country. Today, production ranges from
CopiapóCopiapó is a city in northern Chile, located about 40 miles east of the coastal town of Caldera. Founded on December 8, 1744, it is the capital of Copiapó Province and Atacama Region....
in the north to
Puerto MonttPuerto Montt is a port city and commune in southern Chile, located at the northern end of the Reloncaví Sound in the Llanquihue Province, Los Lagos Region. The commune spans an area of and had a population of 175,938 in 2002. It is located 1,055 km to the south of the capital, Santiago...
in the south, which allows the country to offer blueberries from October through late March. The main production area today is the Biobío Region. Production has evolved rapidly in the last decade, becoming the fourth most important fruit exported in value terms. Fresh market blueberries are exported mainly to North America (80%), followed by Europe (18%). Information from the Fruit Export Association, Chile exported in 2007 more than 21000 tonnes (46,297,075.1 lb) of fresh blueberries and more than 1000 tonnes (2,204,622.6 lb) of frozen product. Most of the production comes from the highbush type, but several rabbiteye blueberries are grown in the country, as well. Information taken from the Chilean Fruit Producers Federation and their Blueberry Committee, states there are over 800 blueberry producers, with surfaces ranging from 50 to 200 ha (123.6 to 494.2 acre).
Harvest seasons
The blueberry harvest in North America varies. It can start as early as May and usually ends in late summer. The principle areas of production in the southern hemisphere, Australia Chile, New Zealand and Argentina, begin harvesting in the northern winter and continue until early spring. Similar to other fruits and vegetables, climate-controlled storage allows growers to preserve picked blueberries. This practice can extend the season in which ripe berries can be sold by a month or more.(Gaskell, 2006) Harvest in the UK is June to August.
Uses
Blueberries are sold fresh or processed as individually quick frozen (IQF) fruit,
puréePurée and mash are general terms for cooked food, usually vegetables or legumes, that have been ground, pressed, blended, and/or sieved to the consistency of a soft creamy paste or thick liquid. Purées of specific foods are often known by specific names, e.g., mashed potatoes or apple sauce...
, juice, or dried or infused berries which in turn may be used in a variety of consumer goods such as jellies, jams,
blueberry pieBlueberry pie is a sweet pie filled with blueberries. Blueberry pie was first eaten by early American settlers and remains a popular dessert in the United States and around the world. Blueberry pie made with wild Maine blueberries is the official state dessert of the U.S. state of Maine....
s, muffins, snack foods, and cereals.
Blueberry jam is made from blueberries,
sugarSugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
, water, and fruit
pectinPectin is a structural heteropolysaccharide contained in the primary cell walls of terrestrial plants. It was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot...
. Blueberry wine is made from the flesh and skin of the berry, which is fermented and then matured; usually the lowbush variety is used.
Blueberries have a diverse range of
micronutrientMicronutrients are nutrients required by humans and other living things throughout life in small quantities to orchestrate a whole range of physiological functions, but which the organism itself cannot produce. For people, they include dietary trace minerals in amounts generally less than 100...
s, with notably high levels (relative to respective
Dietary Reference IntakeThe Dietary Reference Intake is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. The DRI system is used by both the United States and Canada and is intended for the general public and health professionals...
s) of the essential
dietary mineralDietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen present in common organic molecules. Examples of mineral elements include calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, zinc, and iodine...
manganeseManganese is a chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. It has the atomic number 25. It is found as a free element in nature , and in many minerals...
,
vitamin B6Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin and is part of the vitamin B complex group. Several forms of the vitamin are known, but pyridoxal phosphate is the active form and is a cofactor in many reactions of amino acid metabolism, including transamination, deamination, and decarboxylation...
,
vitamin CVitamin C or L-ascorbic acid or L-ascorbate is an essential nutrient for humans and certain other animal species. In living organisms ascorbate acts as an antioxidant by protecting the body against oxidative stress...
,
vitamin KVitamin K is a group of structurally similar, fat soluble vitamins that are needed for the posttranslational modification of certain proteins required for blood coagulation and in metabolic pathways in bone and other tissue. They are 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone derivatives...
and
dietary fiberDietary fiber, dietary fibre, or sometimes roughage is the indigestible portion of plant foods having two main components:* soluble fiber that is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts, and* insoluble fiber that is metabolically inert, absorbing water as it...
(table). One serving provides a relatively low
glycemic loadThe glycemic load is a ranking system for carbohydrate content in food portions based on their glycemic index and a standardized portion size of 100g. Glycemic load or GL combines both the quality and quantity of carbohydrate in one number. It is the best way to predict blood glucose values of...
score of 4 out of 100 per day.
Nutrients and phytochemicals
Especially in wild species, blueberries contain
anthocyaninAnthocyanins are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that may appear red, purple, or blue according to pH...
s, other
antioxidantAn antioxidant is a molecule capable of inhibiting the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that transfers electrons or hydrogen from a substance to an oxidizing agent. Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals. In turn, these radicals can start chain reactions. When...
pigmentA pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, in which a material emits light.Many materials selectively absorb...
s and various
phytochemicalPhytochemicals are biologically active chemical compounds that occur naturally in plants . Phytochemicals are the molecules responsible for the color and organoleptic properties . For example, the deep purple color of blueberries and the smell of garlic...
s, which possibly have a role in reducing risks of some diseases, including
inflammationInflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli and to initiate the healing process...
and certain
cancerCancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
s.
Research on the potential antidisease effects of blueberries
Researchers have shown blueberries contain
pterostilbenePterostilbene is a stilbenoid chemically related to resveratrol and is found in blueberries and grapes. It belongs to the group of phytoalexins, agents produced by plants to fight infections. Based on animal studies it is thought to exhibit anti-cancer, anti-hypercholesterolemia,...
, anthocyanins,
proanthocyanidinProanthocyanidins, also known as OPCs or condensed tannins, are a subgroup of the flavonoid class of polyphenols...
s,
resveratrolResveratrol is a stilbenoid, a type of natural phenol, and a phytoalexin produced naturally by several plants when under attack by pathogens such as bacteria or fungi....
,
flavonolsFlavonols are a class of flavonoids that have the 3-hydroxyflavone backbone . Their diversity stems from the different positions the phenolic -OH groups. They are distinct from flavanols , another class of flavonoids.Flavonols are present in a wide variety of fruits and vegetables...
, and
tanninA tannin is an astringent, bitter plant polyphenolic compound that binds to and precipitates proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids.The term tannin refers to the use of...
s, which inhibit mechanisms of
cancerCancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
cell development and
inflammationInflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli and to initiate the healing process...
in vitroIn vitro refers to studies in experimental biology that are conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological context in order to permit a more detailed or more convenient analysis than can be done with whole organisms. Colloquially, these experiments...
. Similar to red
grapeA grape is a non-climacteric fruit, specifically a berry, that grows on the perennial and deciduous woody vines of the genus Vitis. Grapes can be eaten raw or they can be used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts, raisins, molasses and grape seed oil. Grapes are also...
, some blueberry species contain in their skins significant levels of resveratrol, a
phytochemicalPhytochemicals are biologically active chemical compounds that occur naturally in plants . Phytochemicals are the molecules responsible for the color and organoleptic properties . For example, the deep purple color of blueberries and the smell of garlic...
.
Although most studies below were conducted using the highbush
cultivarA cultivar'Cultivar has two meanings as explained under Formal definition. When used in reference to a taxon, the word does not apply to an individual plant but to all those plants sharing the unique characteristics that define the cultivar. is a plant or group of plants selected for desirable...
of blueberries (V. corymbosum), content of
polyphenol antioxidantA polyphenol antioxidant is a type of antioxidant containing a polyphenolic substructure. Numbering over 4,000 distinct species, many of these compounds have antioxidant activity in vitro but are unlikely to have antioxidant roles in vivo...
s and anthocyanins in lowbush (wild) blueberries (V. angustifolium) exceeds values found in highbush species.
At a 2007 symposium on berry health benefits, reports showed consumption of blueberries (and similar berry fruits including
cranberriesCranberries are a group of evergreen dwarf shrubs or trailing vines in the subgenus Oxycoccus of the genus Vaccinium. In some methods of classification, Oxycoccus is regarded as a genus in its own right...
) may alleviate the cognitive decline occurring in
Alzheimer's diseaseAlzheimer's disease also known in medical literature as Alzheimer disease is the most common form of dementia. There is no cure for the disease, which worsens as it progresses, and eventually leads to death...
and other conditions of aging.
Proanthocyanidin, a chemical isolated from blueberry leaves, can block replication of the hepatitis C virus and might help to delay disease spread in infected individuals if ingested as a dietary supplement at a dosage 1/100th of the toxic threshold.
Feeding blueberries to animals lowers
brainThe brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
damage in experimental
strokeA stroke, previously known medically as a cerebrovascular accident , is the rapidly developing loss of brain function due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can be due to ischemia caused by blockage , or a hemorrhage...
. Research at Rutgers has also shown that blueberries may help prevent urinary tract infections.
Dr. Arpita Basu, an assistant professor of nutrition at Oklahoma State University, showed in several laboratory-based animal and cell studies that anthocyanins, found in blueberries, cause blood vessels to relax and increase production of nitric oxide that helps in maintaining normal blood pressure.
Other animal studies found blueberry consumption lowered
cholesterolCholesterol is a complex isoprenoid. Specifically, it is a waxy steroid of fat that is produced in the liver or intestines. It is used to produce hormones and cell membranes and is transported in the blood plasma of all mammals. It is an essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes...
and total blood
lipidLipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
levels, possibly affecting symptoms of
heart diseaseHeart disease, cardiac disease or cardiopathy is an umbrella term for a variety of diseases affecting the heart. , it is the leading cause of death in the United States, England, Canada and Wales, accounting for 25.4% of the total deaths in the United States.-Types:-Coronary heart disease:Coronary...
. Additional research showed that blueberry consumption in rats altered glycosaminoglycans which are
vascularVascular tissue is a complex conducting tissue, formed of more than one cell type, found in vascular plants. The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These two tissues transport fluid and nutrients internally. There are also two meristems associated with vascular tissue:...
cell components affecting control of
blood pressureBlood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels, and is one of the principal vital signs. When used without further specification, "blood pressure" usually refers to the arterial pressure of the systemic circulation. During each heartbeat, BP varies...
.
A study soon to be published in the
Journal of Agricultural and Food ChemistryThe Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry is a peer-reviewed scientific journal, published since 1950 by the American Chemical Society. It is currently indexed in: Chemical Abstracts Service , Scopus, ProQuest, PubMed, CABI, Ovid, Web of Science, and SwetsWise.The current Editor-in-Chief is...
found supplementation of diets with wild blueberry juice enhanced
memoryIn psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing memory....
and learning in older adults, while reducing
blood sugarThe blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of a human or animal. Normally in mammals, the body maintains the blood glucose level at a reference range between about 3.6 and 5.8 mM , or 64.8 and 104.4 mg/dL...
and symptoms of
depressionDepression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity that can affect a person's thoughts, behaviour, feelings and physical well-being. Depressed people may feel sad, anxious, empty, hopeless, helpless, worthless, guilty, irritable, or restless...
.
Pesticides
In June 2011 the Environmental Working Group rated pesticides in blueberries a significant concern, based on the most recent 2009 USDA laboratory test data.
Domestic US blueberries were scored at number 10 in the "Dirty Dozen"; imported were better, 23 out of 53 rated fruits and vegetables.
(BLUEBERRIES - 52 Pesticide Residues)
(BLUEBERRIES, FROZEN - 21 Pesticide Residues)
Because "wild" is a marketing term generally used for all low-bush blueberries, it is no guarantee that pesticides have not been used.
For example, the application of pesticides is common in large-scale blueberry monoculture in Maine.
Further reading