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Battle of Bunker Hill
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The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775 on Breed's Hill, as part of the Siege of Boston during the American Revolutionary War. General Israel Putnam was in charge of the revolutionary forces, while Major-General William Howe commanded the British forces. Because most of the fighting did not occur on Bunker Hill itself, the conflict is sometimes more accurately (though less often) called the Battle of Breed's Hill.
On the night of June 16, in response to intelligence that the British were soon to attempt the capture of undefended high ground around Boston, Colonial forces stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill, constructed an earthen redoubt on Breed's Hill, and built lightly fortified lines across most of the Charlestown Peninsula.
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The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775 on Breed's Hill, as part of the Siege of Boston during the American Revolutionary War. General Israel Putnam was in charge of the revolutionary forces, while Major-General William Howe commanded the British forces. Because most of the fighting did not occur on Bunker Hill itself, the conflict is sometimes more accurately (though less often) called the Battle of Breed's Hill.
On the night of June 16, in response to intelligence that the British were soon to attempt the capture of undefended high ground around Boston, Colonial forces stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill, constructed an earthen redoubt on Breed's Hill, and built lightly fortified lines across most of the Charlestown Peninsula. In response, the British mounted an attack on those positions the following day. After two assaults on the Colonial lines were repulsed with significant British casualties, the British finally captured the positions on the third assault, after the defenders in the redoubt ran out of ammunition. The Colonial forces retreated over Bunker Hill to Cambridge, suffering their most significant losses on Bunker Hill.
While the result was a victory for the British, they suffered their greatest losses of the entire war: over 800 wounded and 226 killed, including a notably large number of officers. Their immediate objective (the capture of Bunker Hill) was achieved, but did not significantly alter the state of siege. It did, however, demonstrate that relatively inexperienced Colonial forces were willing and able to stand up to well-trained troops in a pitched battle.
Geography
Boston, being on a peninsula, was largely protected from close approach by the expanses of water surrounding it, which were dominated by British warships. In the aftermath of the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the Colonial militia, a force of about 15,000 men had surrounded the town, and effectively besieged it. Under the command of Artemas Ward, they controlled the only land access to Boston itself (the Roxbury Neck), but, lacking a navy, were unable to control or even contest British domination of the waters of the harbor. The British troops, a force of about 6,000 under the command of General Thomas Gage, occupied the city, and were able to be resupplied and reinforced by sea.
The Charlestown Peninsula, lying to the north of Boston, started from a short, narrow isthmus (known as the Charlestown Neck) at its northwest, extending about southeastward into Boston Harbor. Bunker Hill, with an elevation of , lay at the northern end of the peninsula. Breed's Hill, at a height of , was more southerly and nearer to Boston. The town of Charlestown occupied flats at the southern end of the peninsula. At its closest approach, less than separated the Charlestown Peninsula from the Boston Peninsula, where Copp's Hill was at about the same height as Breed's Hill. While the British retreat from Concord had ended in Charlestown, General Gage, rather than immediately fortifying the hills on the peninsula, had withdrawn those troops to Boston the day after that battle, turning the entire Charlestown Peninsula into a no man's land.
British planning
Throughout May, in response to orders from Gage requesting support, the British received reinforcements, until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men. On May 25, three Generals arrived on HMS Cerberus: William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. Gage began planning with them to break out of the city, finalizing a plan on June 12.
On June 13, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress was notified, by express messenger from the Committee of Safety in Exeter, New Hampshire, that a New Hampshire gentleman "of undoubted veracity" had, while visiting Boston, overheard the British commanders making plans to capture Dorchester and Charlestown. On June 15, the Massachusetts Committee of Safety decided that additional defenses needed to be erected. General Ward directed General Israel Putnam to set up defenses on the Charlestown Peninsula, specifically on Bunker Hill.
Prelude to battle
Fortification of Breed's Hill
On the night of June 16, 1775, Colonial Colonel William Prescott led 1,200 men onto the peninsula in order to set up positions from which artillery fire could be directed into Boston. At first, Putnam, Prescott, and their engineer, Captain Richard Gridley, disagreed as to where they should locate their defense. Some work was performed on Bunker Hill, but Breed's Hill was closer to Boston and viewed as being more defensible. Arguably against orders, they decided to build their primary redoubt there. Prescott and his men, using Gridley's outline, began digging a fortification about square with ditches and earthen walls. They added ditch and dike extensions toward the Charles River on their right and began reinforcing a fence running to their left. The walls of the redoubt were about high, with a wooden platform inside on which men could stand and fire over the walls.
The works on Breed's Hill did not go unnoticed by the British. General Clinton, out on reconnaissance that night, was aware of them, and tried to convince Gage and Howe that they needed to prepare to attack the position at daylight. British sentries were also aware of the activity, but most apparently did not think it cause for alarm. Then, in the early predawn, around 4:00 a.m., a sentry on board HMS Lively spotted the new fortification, and notified her captain. Lively opened fire, only temporarily halting the Colonists' work. Aboard his flagship HMS Somerset, Admiral Samuel Graves awoke irritated by the gunfire that he had not ordered. He stopped it, only to have General Gage countermand his decision when he was made aware of the situation. He ordered all 128 guns in the harbor, as well as batteries atop Copp's Hill in Boston, to fire on the Colonists' position, which had relatively little effect.
British preparations
When General Gage surveyed the works from Boston with his staff, Loyalist Abijah Willard recognized his brother-in-law Colonel Prescott. "Will he fight?" asked Gage. "[A]s to his men, I cannot answer for them;" replied Willard, "but Colonel Prescott will fight you to the gates of hell." Prescott lived up to Willard's word, but his men were not so resolute. When the Colonists suffered their first casualty, Asa Pollard of Billerica, a young private killed by cannon fire, Prescott gave orders to bury the man quickly and quietly, but a large group of men gave him a solemn funeral instead, with several deserting shortly thereafter.
It took almost six hours for the British to organize an infantry force and to gather up and inspect the men on parade. General Howe was to lead the major assault, drive around the Colonist's left flank, and take them from the rear. Brigadier General Robert Pigot on the British left flank would lead the direct assault on the redoubt. Major John Pitcairn led the flank or reserve force. It took several trips in longboats to transport Howe's forces to the eastern corner of the peninsula, known as Moulton's Point. By 2 p.m., the British were ready to act.
Colonists reinforce their positions
The Colonists, seeing this activity, had also called for reinforcements. Among the reinforcements were Joseph Warren and Seth Pomeroy, who both chose to serve as infantry. Prescott ordered the Connecticut men under Captain Knowlton to defend the left flank, where they used a crude dirt wall as a breastwork, and topped it with fence rails and hay. Troops that arrived to reinforce this flank position included the 1st and 3rd New Hampshire regiments of 200 men, under Colonels John Stark and James Reed. Stark's men took positions along the breastwork to the north end of the Colonists' position. When low tide opened a gap along the Mystic River to the north, they quickly extended the fence with a short stone wall to the water's edge. Colonel Stark placed a stake about in front of the fence and ordered that no one fire until the regulars passed it. Just prior to the action, further reinforcements arrived, including portions of Massachusetts regiments of Colonels Brewer, Nixon, Woodbridge, Little, and Major Moore, and Callender's company of artillery.
Assault
Brigadier General Pigot, commanding the 5th, 38th, 43rd, 47th, and 52nd regiments, as well as Major Pitcairn's Marines, assaulted the redoubt. They expected to simply scare the Americans off the hill. Prescott, in defense, instructed his men to wait until his signal to fire on the attackers. When they did so, it was with devastating effect, and the regulars were forced to retreat.
General Howe led the light infantry companies and grenadiers in the assault on the American left flank. His light infantry were set along the narrow beach, on the far right flank of the Colonial position, with the grenadiers in the middle. They lined up four deep and several hundred across, led by officers in scarlet red jackets. As the regulars closed, John Simpson, a New Hampshire man, prematurely fired, drawing a useless volley of return fire from the regulars. When the regulars finally closed within range, both sides opened fire. The colonists inflicted heavy casualties on the regulars, especially targeting the red-clad officers, using the fence to steady and aim their muskets. With the fence, the colonists had a considerable advantage; they could fire, and use the fence as cover while the regulars were exposed in open ground. Also the fact that the colonists were not firing in volleys meant that there was always a constant stream of fire coming from their position, while the regulars were under orders to fire in unison. With this devastating barrage of musket fire, the regulars retreated in disarray, and the militia held their ground.
The British reserves, gathering just north of Charlestown village, were taking casualties from sniper fire, and set fire to the town. The smoke billowing from Charlestown lent an almost surreal backdrop to the fighting, as the winds were such that the smoke was kept from the field of battle. The regulars reformed on the field and made a second unsuccessful attack against the redoubt and the northern flank, that again resulted in significant British casualties. Meanwhile, in the rear of the colonial forces, confusion reigned. General Putnam tried, with only limited success, to send additional troops from Bunker Hill to Breed's Hill to support the men in the redoubt.
Finally, General Howe ordered a third attack, in which the reserves were also deployed, along with General Clinton and 400 volunteer marines that crossed from Boston after seeing the failed assaults. This assault, concentrated on the redoubt (with only a feint on the Colonial flank), was successful, although it cost the life of Major Pitcairn. The defenders had run out of ammunition, reducing the battle to close combat. The British had the advantage once they entered the redoubt, as their troops were equipped with bayonets on their muskets but most of the Colonists were not. Colonel Prescott, one of the last Colonists to leave the redoubt, parried bayonet thrusts with his normally ceremonial sabre. It is in the retreat from the redoubt that Joseph Warren was killed. The retreat of the Colonists was made possible in part by the valiant defense of the New Hampshire forces to the north of the redoubt, led by Col. John Stark, which prevented the encirclement of those men. General Putnam attempted to reform the troops on Bunker Hill; however the flight of the Colonial forces was so rapid that artillery pieces and entrenching tools had to be abandoned. The Colonials suffered most of their casualties during the retreat on Bunker Hill. By 5 p.m., the Colonials had retreated over the Charlestown Neck to fortified positions in Cambridge, and the British were in control of the peninsula.
Aftermath
The British had taken the ground but at a great loss; they suffered 1,054 casualties (226 dead and 828 wounded), and a disproportionate number of these were officers; these were the highest casualties suffered by the British in any single encounter during the entire war. General Clinton remarked in his diary that "A few more such victories would have shortly put an end to British dominion in America." The Colonial losses were only about 450, of whom 140, including Dr. Joseph Warren, were killed, and 30 were captured, of whom 20 died later as POWs. Most Colonial losses came during the withdrawal. Major Andrew McClary was the highest ranking Colonial officer to die in the battle. He would later be commemorated by the dedication of Fort McClary in Kittery, Maine.
British dead and wounded included 100 commissioned officers, a significant portion of the British officer corps in North America. Much of General Howe's field staff was among the casualties. Major Pitcairn had been killed, and Colonel James Abercrombie fatally wounded. General Gage, in his report after the battle, reported the following officer casualties (listing lieutenants and above by name):
- 1 lieutenant colonel killed
- 2 majors killed, 3 wounded
- 7 captains killed, 27 wounded
- 9 lieutenants killed, 32 wounded
- 15 sergeants killed, 42 wounded
- 1 drummer killed, 12 wounded
Thomas Gage, who would be recalled to England and replaced by General Howe in October 1775, wrote a report to the British Cabinet, in which he repeated earlier warnings that "a large army must at length be employed to reduce these people" and would require "the hiring of foreign troops."
Analysis
Much has been written in the wake of this battle over how it was conducted. Both sides made strategic and tactical missteps which could have altered the outcome of the battle. While hindsight often gives a biased view, some things seem to be apparent after the battle that might reasonably have been within the reach of the command of the day.
Colonial faults
The British plan of attack for breaking out of Boston had been to first take control of Dorchester Heights. These hills held a more commanding and threatening position over the Boston peninsula and harbor than those of Charlestown (as demonstrated by the withdrawal of the British after they were fortified by the Colonial army in March 1776). Furthermore, the access to the hills from Roxbury was not nearly as constraining as the Charlestown Neck was for access to Bunker Hill. The Committee of Safety, which was the nominal guiding political force at the time of the battle, was apparently unaware of the military significance of the Dorchester Heights.
The Colonial forces, while nominally under the overall command of General Ward, with General Putnam leading in the field, often acted quite independently. This was evident in the opening page of the drama, when a tactical decision was made that had strategic implications. Colonel Prescott and his staff, apparently in contravention of orders, decided to fortify Breed's Hill rather than Bunker Hill. The fortification of Breed's Hill was more provocative; it would have put offensive artillery closer to Boston. It also exposed the forces there to the possibility of being trapped, as they probably could not properly defend against attempts by the British to land troops and take control of Charlestown Neck. If the British had taken that step, they might have had a victory with many fewer casualties.
While the front lines of the Colonial forces were generally well managed, the scene behind them, especially once the action began, was significantly disorganized, due at least in part to a poor chain of command. Only some of the militias operated directly under Ward's and Putnam's authority, and some also disobeyed orders, staying at Bunker Hill rather than joining in the defense on the third British assault. Several officers would afterward be court-martialed or cashiered. Had Prescott and the forces in the redoubt been reinforced with either more forces, or adequate supplies of ammunition and powder, he was of the opinion that they would have succeeded in throwing back the third assault.
British faults
The British leadership, for their part, was slow to act once the works on Breed's Hill were spotted. It was 2 p.m. when the troops were ready for the assault, roughly eight hours later. This leisurely pace gave the Colonial forces time to reinforce the flanking positions that had been poorly defended. Gage and Howe decided that a frontal assault on the works would be a simple matter, when an encircling move (gaining control of Charlestown Neck), would have given them a more resounding victory. (This move would not have been without risks of its own, as the Colonials could have made holding the Neck expensive with fire from the high ground in Cambridge.) But the British leadership was excessively optimistic, believing that "two regiments were sufficient to beat the strength of the province".
Once in the field, Howe, rather than focusing on the redoubt, opted (twice) to dilute the force attacking the redoubt with a flanking maneuver against the Colonial left. It was only with the third attack, when the flank attack was merely a feint, and the main force (now also reinforced with additional reserves) was squarely targeted at the redoubt, that the attack succeeded.
Following the taking of the peninsula, the British arguably had a tactical advantage that they could have used to press into Cambridge. General Clinton proposed this to Howe, who declined the idea. Howe was eventually recognized by the Colonial military leaders to be a tentative decision-maker, to his detriment; in the aftermath of the Battle of Long Island, he again had tactical advantages that might have delivered Washington's army into his hands; he again refused to act.
"The whites of their eyes"
The famous order, "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes" was popularized in stories about the battle of Bunker Hill. However, it is uncertain as to who said it, since various histories attribute it to Putnam, Stark, Prescott or Gridley, and it may have been said first by one, and repeated by the others. It was also not an original statement. The earliest similar quote came from the Battle of Dettingen on 27 June 1743, where Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw warned his Regiment, the Royal Scots Fusiliers, not to fire until they could "see the white's of their e'en." The phrase was also used by Prince Charles of Prussia in 1745, and repeated in 1755 by Frederick the Great, and may have been mentioned in histories the Colonial military leaders were familiar with. Whether or not it was actually said in this battle, it was clear that the Colonial military leadership were regularly reminding their troops to hold their fire until the moment when it would have the greatest effect, especially in situations where their ammunition would be limited.
Colonial Volunteers
 - William Barton, captured General Richard Prescott in 1777
- John Brooks physician, future Major General, future Governor of Massachusetts
- Henry Burbeck, future Brigadier General, also fought in the War of 1812
- Henry Dearborn, physician, Congressman, Secretary of War, Major General and Senior Officer of the United States Army, Minister Plenipotentiary to Portugal
- William Eustis, physician, Congressman, Secretary of War, Governor of Massachusetts, Ambassador to Holland
- Christian Febiger, Brigadier General (by brevet), Treasurer for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
- Thomas Gardner, Colonel, mortally wounded at the Battle of Bunker Hill
- Thomas Knowlton, Colonel, went on to lead intelligence and reconnaissance corps under Washington
- Henry Knox, Major General, Secretary of War
- Barzillai Lew, an African-American
- James Otis, famous for popularizing the phrase "Taxation without representation"
- Salem Poor, an African-American who fought with distinction in the battle
- Israel Potter, immortalized in a novel by Herman Melville
- Peter Salem, aka "Salem Middlesex", an African-American
- Daniel Shays, who would lead an army of farmers in Shays' Rebellion
- William Stacy, Colonel, lead settler of the Ohio Country after independence
- John Stark, General, leader of New Hampshire militia, later known as the "Hero of Bennington" for his role in the Battle of Bennington
Commemorations
- The Bunker Hill Monument is an obelisk that stands 220 feet (67 m) high on Bunker Hill. On June 17, 1825, the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, the cornerstone of the monument was laid by the Marquis de Lafayette and an address delivered by Daniel Webster. There is also a statue of Prescott in the famous pose used to show him calming his "farmers" down. The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge was specifically designed to evoke this monument.
- Bunker Hill Day, commemorating the battle, is a legal holiday in Suffolk County, Massachusetts (which includes the city of Boston) as well as Somerville in Middlesex County. State institutions in Massachusetts (such as public institutions of higher education) also celebrate the holiday.
See also
External links
Pages about the battle
Pages about people in the battle
Other external pages
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