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The user interface (also known as Human Computer Interface or Man-Machine Interface (MMI)) is the aggregate of means by which people—the user
User (computing)

In computing, a user is a person who uses a computer or Internet service. A user may have a user account that identifies the user by a username , screenname , or "handle", which is derived from the identical Citizen's Band radio term....
s—interact
Interaction

Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect....
 with the system
System

System is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole.The concept of an "integrated whole" can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the se...
—a particular machine
Machine

A machine is any device that uses energy to perform some activity. In common usage, the meaning is that of a device having parts that perform or assist in performing any type of work....
, device, computer program
Computer program

Computer programs are Instruction for a computer. A computer requires programs to function. Moreover, a computer program does not run unless its instructions are executed by a Central processing unit; however, a program may communicate an Algorithm#Formalization of algorithms to people without running....
 or other complex tool. The user interface provides means of:

ork with a system, users have to be able to control the system and assess the state of the system.






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The user interface (also known as Human Computer Interface or Man-Machine Interface (MMI)) is the aggregate of means by which people—the user
User (computing)

In computing, a user is a person who uses a computer or Internet service. A user may have a user account that identifies the user by a username , screenname , or "handle", which is derived from the identical Citizen's Band radio term....
s—interact
Interaction

Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect....
 with the system
System

System is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole.The concept of an "integrated whole" can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the se...
—a particular machine
Machine

A machine is any device that uses energy to perform some activity. In common usage, the meaning is that of a device having parts that perform or assist in performing any type of work....
, device, computer program
Computer program

Computer programs are Instruction for a computer. A computer requires programs to function. Moreover, a computer program does not run unless its instructions are executed by a Central processing unit; however, a program may communicate an Algorithm#Formalization of algorithms to people without running....
 or other complex tool. The user interface provides means of:
  • Input
    Input

    Input is the term denote either an entrance or changes which are inserted into a system and which activate/modify a process. It is an abstract concept, used in the model ing, system design and system exploitation....
    , allowing the users to manipulate a system
  • Output
    Output

    Output is the term denote either an exit or changes which exit a system and which activate/modify a process. It is an abstract concept, used in the model ing, system design and system exploitation....
    , allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation.


Introduction

To work with a system, users have to be able to control the system and assess the state of the system. For example, when driving an automobile
Automobile

An automobile or motor car is a wheeled motor vehicle for transportation passengers, which also carries its own car engine or motor. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on roads, to have seating for one to eight people, to typically have four wheels, and to be constructed principally f...
, the driver uses the steering wheel to control the direction of the vehicle
Vehicle

Vehicles, derived from the Latin word, vehiculum, are non-living means of transport. Most often they are manufactured , although some other means of transport which are not made by humans also may be called vehicles; examples include icebergs and floating tree trunks....
, and the accelerator pedal, brake pedal and gearstick to control the speed of the vehicle. The driver perceives the position of the vehicle by looking through the windscreen and exact speed of the vehicle by reading the speedometer
Speedometer

A speedometer is a device that measures the instantaneous speed of a land vehicle.Now universally fitted to motor vehicles, they started to be available as options in the 1900s, and as standard equipment from about 1910 onwards....
. The user interface of the automobile is on the whole composed of the instrument
List of vehicle instruments

Vehicle instrument is an instrument that measures some parameters in the vehicle, often found on its control panel or dashboard....
s the driver can use to accomplish the tasks of driving and maintaining the automobile.

The term user interface is often used in the context of computer systems and electronic devices
Electronics

Electronics refers to the flow of charge through nonmetal electrical conductor , whereas electrical refers to the flow of charge through metal electrical conductor....
. The user interface of a mechanical
Machine

A machine is any device that uses energy to perform some activity. In common usage, the meaning is that of a device having parts that perform or assist in performing any type of work....
 system, a vehicle or an industrial
Industry

An industry is the manufacturing of a Good or Service within a category. Although industry is a broad term for any kind of economic production, in economics and urban planning industry is a synonym for the secondary sector, which is a type of economic activity involved in the manufacturing of raw materials into goods and products....
 installation is sometimes referred to as the Human-Machine Interface (HMI). HMI is a modification of the original term MMI (Man-Machine Interface). In practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI
MMI

MMI may refer to:* Madison Media Institute, a college of media arts located in Madison, Wisconsin, United States now owned by American Higher Education Development...
 stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI
HCI

HCI can mean:...
, but is more commonly used for Human-computer interaction than Human-computer interface. Other terms used are Operator Interface Console (OIC) and Operator Interface Terminal (OIT).

However it is abbreviated, the terms refer to the 'layer' that separates a human that is operating a machine from the machine itself.

In science fiction
Science fiction

Science fiction is a broad genre of fiction that often involves speculations based on current or future science or technology. Science fiction is found in books, art, television, films, games, theatre, and other media....
, HMI is sometimes used to refer to what is better described as direct neural interface. However, this latter usage is seeing increasing application in the real-life use of (medical) prostheses—the artificial extension that replaces a missing body part (e.g., cochlear implants).

The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users. For example, a computerized library
Library

A library is a collection of information, sources, resources, books, and services, and the structure in which it is housed: it is organized for use and maintained by a public body, an institution, or a private individual....
 database
Database

A database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a computer system. The structure is achieved by organizing the data according to a database model....
 might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons (limited set of functions, optimized for ease of use) and the other for library personnel (wide set of functions, optimized for efficiency).

In some circumstance computers might observe the user, and react according to their actions without specific commands. A means of tracking parts of the body is required, and sensors noting the position of the head, direction of gaze and so on have been used experimentally. This is particularly relevant to immersive interfaces
Immersive digital environment

An immersive digital environment is an artificial, interactive, computer-created cut scene or "world" within which a user can immerse themselves....
.

Usability

The design
Interaction design

Interaction Design is the discipline of defining the behavior of products and systems that a user can interact with. The practice typically centers around complex technology systems such as Computer software, Handheld devices, and other electronic devices....
 of a user interface affects the amount of effort the user must expend to provide input for the system and to interpret the output of the system, and how much effort it takes to learn how to do this. Usability
Usability

Usability is a term used to denote the ease with which people can employ a particular tool or other human-made object in order to achieve a particular goal....
 is the degree to which the design of a particular user interface takes into account the human psychology
Psychology

Psychology is an academic and applied science discipline involving the science study of human mental functions and behavior. Occasionally it also relies on symbolic hermeneutics and critical theory, although these traditions are less pronounced than in other social sciences such as sociology....
 and physiology
Physiology

Physiology is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living organisms. Physiology has traditionally been divided between plant physiology and animal and all living things physiology but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied....
 of the users, and makes the process of using the system effective, efficient and satisfying.

Usability is mainly a characteristic of the user interface, but is also associated with the functionalities of the product and the process to design it. It describes how well a product can be used for its intended purpose by its target users with efficiency, effectiveness, and satisfaction, also taking into account the requirements from its context of use.

See also: .
List of human-computer interaction topics
List of human-computer interaction topics

This is a list of topics in human-computer interaction....


User interfaces in computing

In computer science
Computer science

Computer science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation, and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems....
 and human-computer interaction, the user interface (of a computer program) refers to the graphical, textual and auditory information the program presents to the user, and the control sequences (such as keystrokes with the computer keyboard, movements of the computer mouse, and selections with the touchscreen
Touchscreen

A touchscreen is a display which can detect the presence and location of a touch within the display area. The term generally refers to touch or contact to the display of the device by a finger or hand....
) the user employs to control the program.

Types

Currently the following types of user interface are the most common:
  • Graphical user interface
    Graphical user interface

    A graphical user interface is a type of user interface which allows people to human-computer interaction such as computers; hand-held devices such as MP3 Players, Portable Media Players or Gaming devices; household appliances and office equipment....
    s     (GUI) accept input via devices such as computer keyboard and mouse and provide articulated graphical output on the computer monitor. There are at least two different principles widely used in GUI design: Object-oriented user interface
    Object-oriented user interface

    An object-oriented user interface is a type of user interface.DefinitionsIn an OOUI, the user interacts explicitly with objects that represent entities in the domain that the application is concerned with....
    s (OOUIs) and application
    Application software

    Application software is any tool that functions and is operated by means of a computer, with the purpose of supporting or improving the software user 's work....
     oriented interfaces.
  • Web-based user interfaces or web user interfaces (WUI) accept input and provide output by generating web page
    Web page

    A web page or webpage is a resource of information that is suitable for the World Wide Web and can be accessed through a web browser.This information is usually in HyperText Markup Language or eXtensible HyperText Markup Language format, and may provide Navigation bar to other web pages via hypertext Hyperlink....
    s which are transmitted via the Internet
    Internet

    The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers, enabling users to share information along multiple channels. Typically, a computer that connects to the Internet can access information from a vast array of available server and other computers by moving information from them to the computer's local memory....
     and viewed by the user using a web browser
    Web browser

    A Web browser is a application software which enables a user to display and interact with text, images, videos, music, games and other information typically located on a Web page at a website on the World Wide Web or a local area network....
     program. Newer implementations utilize Java
    Java (programming language)

    Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java ....
    , AJAX
    Ajax (programming)

    Ajax, or AJAX , is a group of interrelated web development techniques used to create interactive web applications or rich Internet applications....
    , Adobe Flex
    Adobe Flex

    Adobe Flex is a collection of technologies released by Adobe Systems for the development and deployment of cross-platform rich Internet applications based on the proprietary Adobe Flash platform....
    , Microsoft .NET, or similar technologies to provide real-time control in a separate program, eliminating the need to refresh a traditional HTML based web browser. Administrative web interfaces for web-servers, servers and networked computers are often called Control panel
    Control panel (Web hosting)

    A Control panel in web hosting refers to the interface provided by the hosting company for the maintenance and monitoring of the hosted website....
    s.


User interfaces that are common in various fields outside desktop computing
Desktop computer

A desktop computer is a personal computer in a form intended for regular use at a single location, as opposed to a mobile laptop or portable computer....
:
  • Command line interface
    Command line interface

    A command-line interface is a mechanism for interacting with a computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks....
    s    , where the user provides the input by typing a command string
    Command (computing)

    In computing, a command is a directive to a computer program acting as an interpreter of some kind, in order to perform a specific task. Most commonly a command is a directive to some kind of command line interface, such as a shell ....
     with the computer keyboard and the system provides output by printing text on the computer monitor. Used for system administration tasks etc.
  • Tactile interfaces supplement or replace other forms of output with haptic
    Haptic

    Haptic technology refers to technology that interfaces to the user via the sense of touch by applying forces, vibrations, and/or motions to the user....
     feedback methods. Used in computerized simulators etc.
  • Touch interfaces are graphical user interfaces using a touchscreen display as a combined input and output device. Used in many types of point of sale
    Point of sale

    Point of sale or point of service can mean a retailing, a checkout counter in a shop, or the location where a financial transaction occurs....
    , industrial processes and machines, self-service machines etc.


Other types of user interfaces:
  • Attentive user interface
    Attentive user interface

    The Attentive User Interfaces are User Interfaces that manage the user attention deciding when to interrupt the user, the kind of warnings, and the level of detail of the messages presented to the user....
    s     manage the user attention
    Attention

    Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things. Examples include listening carefully to what someone is saying while ignoring other conversations in a room or listening to a cell phone conversation while driving a car....
     deciding when to interrupt the user, the kind of warnings, and the level of detail of the messages presented to the user.
  • Batch interfaces are non-interactive user interfaces, where the user specifies all the details of the batch job in advance to batch processing
    Batch processing

    Batch processing is execution of a series of Computer programs on a computer without human interaction.Batch jobs are set up so they can be run to completion without human interaction, so all input data is preselected through Script s or command-line parameters....
    , and receives the output when all the processing is done. The computer does not prompt for further input after the processing has started.
  • Conversational Interface Agents attempt to personify the computer interface in the form of an animated person, robot, or other character (such as Microsoft's Clippy the paperclip), and present interactions in a conversational form.
  • Crossing-based interfaces are graphical user interfaces in which the primary task consists in crossing boundaries instead of pointing.
  • Gesture interfaces are graphical user interfaces which accept input in a form of hand gesture
    Gesture

    A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication made with a part of the body, used instead of or in combination with verbal communication. The language of gesture allows individuals to express a variety of feelings and thoughts, from contempt and hostility to approval and affection....
    s, or mouse gesture
    Mouse gesture

    In computing, a mouse gesture is a way of combining computer mouse movements and clicks which the software recognizes as a specific command. Mouse gestures can provide quick access to common functions of a program....
    s sketched with a computer mouse or a stylus
    Stylus

    A stylus is a writing utensil. The word is also used for a computer accessory . It usually refers to a narrow elongated staff, similar to a modern ballpoint pen....
    .
  • Intelligent user interfaces are human-machine interfaces that aim to improve the efficiency, effectiveness, and naturalness of human-machine interaction by representing, reasoning, and acting on models of the user, domain, task, discourse, and media (e.g., graphics, natural language, gesture).
  • Multi-screen interfaces, employ multiple displays to provide a more flexible interaction. This is often employed in computer game interaction in both the commercial arcades and more recently the handheld markets.
  • Noncommand user interfaces, which observe the user to infer his / her needs and intentions, without requiring that he / she formulate explicit commands.
  • Object-oriented User Interface (OOUI)
  • Reflexive user interfaces where the users control and redefine the entire system via the user interface alone, for instance to change its command verb
    Command verb

    In human-computer interaction, a command verb is a verb that appears in a user interface and which is used for the user to tell the computer to do something ....
    s. Typically this is only possible with very rich graphic user interfaces.
  • Tangible user interface
    Tangible User Interface

    A tangible user interface is a user interface in which a person interacts with digital information through the physical built environment. The initial name was Graspable User Interface, which no longer is used....
    s    , which place a greater emphasis on touch and physical environment or its element.
  • Text user interface
    Text user interface

    TUI short for: Text User Interface or Textual User Interface , is a retronym that was coined sometime after the invention of graphical user interfaces, to distinguish them from Text-based user interfaces....
    s     are user interfaces which output text, but accept other form of input in addition to or in place of typed command strings.
  • Voice user interface
    Voice User Interface

    A Voice User Interface makes human interaction with computers possible through a voice/speech platform in order to initiate an automated service or process....
    s    , which accept input and provide output by generating voice prompts. The user input is made by pressing keys or buttons, or responding verbally to the interface.
  • Natural-Language interfaces
    Natural language user interface

    Natural Language User Interfaces are a type of User interface where linguistic phenomenon such as verbs, phrases, and clauses act as UI controls for creating, selecting, and modifying data in software applications....
     - Used for search engines and on webpages. User types in a question and waits for a response.
  • Zero-Input interfaces get inputs from a set of sensors instead of querying the user with input dialogs.
  • Zooming user interface
    Zooming User Interface

    In computing, a zooming user interface or zoomable user interface is a graphical environment where users can change the scale of the viewed area in order to see more detail or less....
    s     are graphical user interfaces in which information objects are represented at different levels of scale and detail, and where the user can change the scale of the viewed area in order to show more detail.
See also:
  • Archy
    Archy

    Archy is a software system whose user interface poses a radically different approach for human-computer interaction with respect to traditional graphical user interfaces....
    , a keyboard-driven user interface by Jef Raskin
    Jef Raskin

    Jef Raskin was an United States human-computer interface expert best-known for starting the Macintosh project for Apple Inc. in the late 1970s....
    , arguably more efficient than mouse-driven user interfaces for document editing and programming.


History

The history of user interfaces can be divided into the following phases according to the dominant type of user interface:
  • Batch interface, 1945-1968
  • Command-line user interface, 1969 to present
  • Graphical user interface, 1981 to present — see History of the GUI for a detailed look
  • Tangible interfaces / Ubicomp
    Ubiquitous computing

    Ubiquitous computing is a post-desktop model of human-computer interaction in which information processing has been thoroughly integrated into everyday objects and activities....
  • Touch User Interface (TUI), e.g. point of sale
    Point of sale

    Point of sale or point of service can mean a retailing, a checkout counter in a shop, or the location where a financial transaction occurs....
     devices, iPhone


Modalities and modes

A modality
Modality (human-computer interaction)

In human-computer interaction, a modality is the general class of:* a sense through which the human can receive the output of the computer * a sensor or Peripheral device through which the computer can receive the input from the human...
 is a path of communication employed by the user interface to carry input and output. Examples of modalities:

  • Input — computer keyboard allows the user to enter typed text, digitizing tablet allows the user to create free-form drawing
  • Output — computer monitor allows the system to display text and graphics (vision modality), loudspeaker
    Loudspeaker

    A loudspeaker, speaker, or speaker system is an electroacoustical transducer that converts an electricity signal processing to sound....
     allows the system to produce sound (auditory modality)


The user interface may employ several redundant input modalities and output modalities, allowing the user to choose which ones to use for interaction.

A mode
Mode (computer interface)

In user interface design, a mode is a distinct setting within a computer program or any physical machine interface, in which the same user input will produce perceived different results than it would in other settings....
 is a distinct method of operation within a computer program, in which the same input can produce different perceived results depending of the state of the computer program. Heavy use of modes often reduces the usability of a user interface, as the user must expend effort to remember current mode states, and switch between mode states as necessary.

Standardization

This year ISO has published its standard of ISO/IEC 24752 to specify the technical requirement of IT system.

See also

  • Accessibility
    Accessibility

    Accessibility is a general term used to describe the degree to which a product is accessible by as many people as possible. Accessibility can be viewed as the "ability to access" the functionality, and possible benefit, of some system or entity....
     and computer accessibility
    Computer accessibility

    In human-computer interaction, computer accessibility refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people, regardless of disability or severity of impairment....
     — user interface's suitability for people with special needs
  • Brain-computer interface
    Brain-computer interface

    A brain-computer interface , sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain-machine interface, is a direct communication pathway between a brain and an external device....
  • Ergonomics
    Ergonomics

    Ergonomics is the scientific discipline concerned with designing according to human needs, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance....
     and human factors
    Human factors

    Human factors is a term that covers:* The science of understanding the properties of human capability .* The application of this understanding to the design and development of systems and services ....
     — the study of designing objects to be better adapted to the shape of the human body
  • Framebuffer
    Framebuffer

    A framebuffer is a video output device that drives a video display from a memory buffer containing a complete video frame of data. The information in the buffer typically consists of color values for every pixel on the screen....
  • Human-computer interaction links
  • Information visualization
    Information visualization

    File:HaloVisualizationTechnique.pngInformation visualization the interdisciplinary study of the visualisation Representation of large-scale collections of non-numerical information, such as files and lines of code in software systems, and the use of graphical techniques to help people understand and analyze data....
     — the use of sensory representations of abstract data to reinforce cognition
  • Interaction technique
    Interaction technique

    An interaction technique, user interface technique or input technique is a combination of Computer_hardware and software elements that provides a way for computer users to accomplish a single task....
  • Interface (computer science)
    Interface (computer science)

    Interface generally refers to an Abstraction_%28computer_science%29 that an entity provides of itself to the outside. This separates the methods of external communication from internal operation, and allows it to be internally modified without affecting the way outside entities interact with it, as well as provide Polymorphism in object-orien...
  • Knowledge visualization — the use of visual representations to transfer knowledge
  • List of user interface literature
    List of user interface literature

    Incomplete list of literature about the design of user interfaces:*Soren Lauesen: User Interface Design, A Software Engineering Perspective, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-18143-3...
  • Ncurses
    Ncurses

    ncurses is a programming library providing an application programming interface, allowing the programmer to write text user interfaces in a terminal-independent manner....
    , a semigraphical user interface.
  • Usability links
    Usability

    Usability is a term used to denote the ease with which people can employ a particular tool or other human-made object in order to achieve a particular goal....
  • User Assistance
    User Assistance

    User assistance is a general term for guided assistance to a user of a software product. The phrase incorporates all forms of help available to a user....
  • User experience
  • User interface design
    User interface design

    User interface design or user interface engineering is the design of computers, appliances, machines, Communication, software applications, and websites with the focus on the user experience and interaction....
  • Virtual artifact
    Virtual artifact

    A virtual artifact is an immaterial Object that exists in the human mind or in a digital environment, for example the Internet, intranet, virtual reality, cyberspace, etc....
  • Adaptive user interfaces
    Adaptive user interfaces

    An adaptive user interface is a User Interface which dynamically tailors its layout and elements to the needs of the user or context. Some affordances may be displayed or removed based on a user's actions....


Literature

  • Torsten Stapelkamp: Screen- und Interfacedesign. Springer Science Business+Media, Berlin 2007, ISBN 3-540-32949-8


External links

  • covers a wide area of User Interface publications