Stokoe notation is the first (Kyle & Woll 1988:88
ff) and so far only phonemic script used for
sign languageA sign language is a language which, instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns, uses visually transmitted sign patterns to convey meaning—simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to fluidly express a speaker's...
s. It was created by
William StokoeWilliam C. Stokoe, Jr. was a scholar who researched American Sign Language extensively while he worked at Gallaudet University...
for
American Sign LanguageAmerican Sign Language is the dominant sign language of the Deaf community in the United States, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, and in some regions of Mexico...
(ASL), with Latin letters and numerals used for the shapes they have in
fingerspellingFingerspelling is the representation of the letters of a writing system, and sometimes numeral systems, using only the hands. These manual alphabets , have often been used in deaf education, and have subsequently been adopted as a distinct part of a number of sign languages around the world...
, and iconic glyphs to transcribe the position, movement, and orientation of the hands. It was first published as the organizing principle of
A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles, by Stokoe
et al. 1960.
Stokoe notation is the first (Kyle & Woll 1988:88
ff) and so far only phonemic script used for
sign languageA sign language is a language which, instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns, uses visually transmitted sign patterns to convey meaning—simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to fluidly express a speaker's...
s. It was created by
William StokoeWilliam C. Stokoe, Jr. was a scholar who researched American Sign Language extensively while he worked at Gallaudet University...
for
American Sign LanguageAmerican Sign Language is the dominant sign language of the Deaf community in the United States, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, and in some regions of Mexico...
(ASL), with Latin letters and numerals used for the shapes they have in
fingerspellingFingerspelling is the representation of the letters of a writing system, and sometimes numeral systems, using only the hands. These manual alphabets , have often been used in deaf education, and have subsequently been adopted as a distinct part of a number of sign languages around the world...
, and iconic glyphs to transcribe the position, movement, and orientation of the hands. It was first published as the organizing principle of
A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles, by Stokoe
et al. 1960. In this dictionary, signs are themselves arranged alphabetically, according to their Stokoe transcription, rather than being ordered by their English
glossA gloss is a brief summary of a word's meaning, equivalent to the dictionary entry of that word, but only a word or two in length. It is typically used for the meaning of a word in another language, and hence a simple translation....
es as in other sign-language dictionaries. This made it the only ASL dictionary where the reader could look up a sign without first knowing how to translate it into English. The Stokoe notation was later adapted to
British Sign LanguageBritish Sign Language is the sign language used in the United Kingdom , and is the first or preferred language of deaf people in the UK; the number of signers has been put at 30,000 to 70,000. The language makes use of space and involves movement of the hands, body, face and head...
(BSL) in Kyle & Woll (1988) and to
Australian Aboriginal sign languagesMany Australian Aboriginal cultures have or traditionally had a sign language counterpart to their spoken language. This appears to be connected with various taboos on speech between certain people within the community or at particular times, such as during a mourning period for women or during...
in Kendon (1988). In each case the researchers modified the alphabet to accommodate phonemes not found in ASL.
The Stokoe notation is mostly restricted to linguists and academics, unlike
SignWritingSignWriting is a system of writing sign languages. It is highly featural and visually iconic, both in the shapes of the characters—which are abstract pictures of the hands, face, and body—, and in their spatial arrangement on the page, which does not follow a sequential order like the letters that...
, which is used by the Deaf themselves for school newspapers and the like. Stokoe notation is arranged linearly on the page and can be written with a typewriter that has the proper font installed. Unlike SignWriting or the
Hamburg Notation SystemThe Hamburg Sign Language Notation System, or HamNoSys, is a phonetic transcription system for sign languages, analogous to the IPA for spoken languages. First developed in 1985 at the University of Hamburg, Germany, it is currently in its third revision....
, it utilizes the
Latin alphabetThe Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. It evolved from the western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumaean alphabet, and was initially developed by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language.During the...
and is
phonemicIn a language or dialect, a phoneme is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances....
, being restricted to the symbols needed to meet the requirements of ASL (or extended to BSL, etc.) rather than accommodating all possible signs. For example, there is a single symbol for circling movement, regardless of whether the plane of the movement is horizontal or vertical; this is because the orientation of the motion is determined by ASL
phonotacticsPhonotactics is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences by means of phonotactical constraints.Phonotactic constraints are language...
and need not be indicated in a phonemic system.
Writing direction
Stokoe notation is written horizontally left to right like the Latin alphabet. This contrasts with
SignWritingSignWriting is a system of writing sign languages. It is highly featural and visually iconic, both in the shapes of the characters—which are abstract pictures of the hands, face, and body—, and in their spatial arrangement on the page, which does not follow a sequential order like the letters that...
, which is written vertically from top to bottom.
Symbol usage
Stokoe coined the terms
tab ("tabula" or sign location),
dez ("designator" or handshape & orientation ), and
sig ("signification" or motion & action). These are used to categorize features of sign-language
phonemeIn a language or dialect, a phoneme is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances....
s, somewhat like the distinction between
consonantIn articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper vocal tract, the upper vocal tract being defined as that part of the vocal tract that lies above the larynx...
,
vowelIn phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
, and
toneTone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is, to distinguish or inflect words. All languages use pitch to express emotional and other paralinguistic information, and to convey emphasis, contrast, and other such features in what is called intonation, but...
is used in the description of oral languages. A sign is written in the order
tab-dez-sig: TD
s. Compound signs are separated with a double dashed pipe, approximately TD
s¦¦TD
s.
A serious deficiency of the system is that it does not provide for facial expression, mouthing, eye gaze, and body posture, as Stokoe had not worked out their phonemics in ASL (Kyle & Woll 1988:29). Verbal inflection and non-lexical movement is awkward to notate, and more recent analyses such as those of
Ted Supalla have contradicted Stokoe's set of motion phonemes. There is also no provision for representing the relationship between signs in their natural context, which restricts the usefulness of the notation to the lexical or dictionary level. Nonetheless, Stokoe demonstrated for the first time that a sign language can be written phonemically just like any other language.
In the tables below, the first column is a web-based approximation of the Stokoe symbol using the inventory available in
UnicodeUnicode is a computing industry standard allowing computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's writing systems...
, and the second is an
ASCIIThe American Standard Code for Information Interchange is a character-encoding scheme based on the ordering of the English alphabet. ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that use text...
substitution for the purpose of citing examples in this article.
Tab (Location)
The
tab symbols are a null sign for a neutral location and iconic symbols for parts of the head, arm, and torso. In addition, the
dez (handshape) symbols below may be used to indicate that the location is the passive hand in a specific shape.
| Unicode |
ASCII |
Stokoe** |
Description |
| Ø |
0 |
Q |
neutral location |
| ⩇ |
Q |
h |
face, or whole head (symbol is superimposed ᴖ and ᴗ) |
| ∩ |
P |
u |
forehead, brow, or upper face |
| ⊔ |
T |
m |
eyes, nose, or mid face |
| ∪ |
U |
l |
lips, chin, or lower face |
| Ȝ |
||
c|| cheek, temple, ear, or side face
|-
|Π||N||
k|| neck
|-
|[]||[]||
[||shoulders, chest, trunk
|-
|Ƨ||7||
i||upper arm
|-
|√||J||
j||elbow, forearm
|-
|Ɑ||9||
a||inside of wrist
|-
|
ɒ||6||
b||back of wrist
|}
Given a handshape
(dez) ,* would be D signed at the face, the same handshape signed at the elbow, and <9D> on the inside of the wrist.
* "D" is not used for a specific handshape, but is a standin here for whichever dez is used.
** Proper display requires installation of the Stokoe font available at the external link below.
Dez (Handshape)
The symbols for handshapes are taking from the ASL manual alphabet: represents a fist, the handshape used for fingerspelling "A" (and also "S" and "T", since the difference is not significant outside fingerspelling and initialisms); represents a flat hand, the handshape used for fingerspelling "B" and "4", etc. When a dez involves two hands, two letters are used.
Dez symbols may also be used as tabs. For example, represents a flat hand, B, located at the face, Q, and represents a dominant flat hand B acting on a passive flat hand B. The latter is disambiguated from two B hands acting together by using another letter for the tab, such as <ØBB> for two B hands acting in neutral space, or for both hands at the face.
Besides the shape of the hands, the dez includes their orientation. This is indicated, when necessary, with subscripts, which are introduced in the next section.
| A |
fist (as ASL 'a', 's', or 't') |
| B |
flat hand (as ASL 'b' or '4') |
| 5 |
spread hand (as ASL '5') |
| C |
cupped hand (as ASL 'c', or more open) |
| E |
claw hand (as ASL 'e', or more clawlike) |
| F |
okay hand (as ASL 'f'; thumb & index touch or cross) |
| G |
pointing hand (as ASL 'g' 'd' or '1') |
| H |
index + middle fingers together (as ASL 'h,' 'n' or 'u') |
| I |
pinkie (as ASL 'i') |
| K |
thumb touches middle finger of V (as ASL 'k' or 'p') |
| L |
angle hand, thumb + index (as ASL 'l') |
| Ʒ (3) |
vehicle classifier hand, thumb + index + middle fingers (as ASL '3') |
| O |
tapered hand, fingers curved over thumb (as ASL 'o' or 'm') |
| R |
crossed fingers (as ASL 'r') |
| V |
spread index + middle fingers (as ASL 'v') |
| W |
thumb touches pinkie (as ASL 'w') |
| X |
hook (as ASL 'x') |
| Y |
horns (as ASL 'y', or as index + pinkie) |
| ȣ (8) |
bent middle finger; may touch thumb (as ASL '8' in the latter case; this is a common allophone of Y) |
There are three diacritics that modify the shape of the dez. A dot placed above it shows that a finger not normally seen is prominent, usually because it is involved in the production of the sign. For example, Å [or 'A; actual A-dot is not widely supported in browsers] is a fist with the thumb extended, as in UÅt . Three dots or ticks over a letter shows the fingers are flexed, so that B-dots ( ;B) is a flexed flat hand, and ;V is two flexed fingers. The forearm tab sign prefixed to the dez ( j) shows that the forearms are prominent in the production of the sign, as in ɑ jB^ω .
Sig (movement) and dez orientation
The movement of the hand, or sig, is written with superscripted letters after the dez, as D# (any dez D which closes). Multiple movement sigs are arranged linearly when the movements are sequential, as in TD×∨× (any dez D which touches a tab T, moves down, and touches again),1 but stacked one above the other when signed simultaneously, as in TD×ͮ (a dez which moves down while in contact with the tab).2
A dot placed above the sig indicates that the motion is sharp, as in TD×̇ (sharp contact by the dez D),3 while a dot placed after the sig indicates that the motion is repeated, as in TD×· (repeated contact by the dez; TDx" in ASCII).
A tilde with a two-hand dez, TDDs~, indicates that first one hand performs the sig, then the other. Without the tilde, both hands are understood to act together.
A subset of the sig symbols used for motion are also used to indicate the orientation of the hand. In this use they are subscripted after the dez instead of superscripted, as in D# (any dez D which starts off closed).4 Stokoe analyzed the orientation of the hand as part of the tab, the handshape.
| Movement (sig) |
Orientation (dez) |
| Unicode | ASCII | Stokoe* | Description |
|---|
| Unicode | ASCII | Stokoe* | Description |
|---|
|
D^ |
D^ |
moving upward |
|
^D |
D^ |
facing or pointing upward |
| Dv |
Dv |
Dv |
moving downward |
Dv |
vD |
Dv |
facing or pointing downward |
|
Dw |
Dr |
moving up and down |
— |
| D> |
D> |
D> |
to the dominant side |
D> |
>D |
D> |
facing the dominant side |
| D< |
D< |
D< |
to the center or non-dominant side |
D< |
| D< |
facing the center or non-dominant side |
|
| D≷ |
Dz |
Dz |
side to side |
— |
| D⊤ |
Dt |
Dt |
toward signer |
D⊤ |
tD |
Dt |
facing signer |
| D⊥ |
Df |
Df |
away from signer |
D⊥ |
fD |
Df |
facing away from signer |
| Dᶦ |
Dm |
D= |
to and fro |
— |
|
Da |
Da |
supinate (turn palm up) |
|
aD |
Da |
supine (palm facing up) |
|
Db |
Db |
pronate (turn palm down) |
|
bD |
Db |
prone (palm facing down) |
| Dω |
Dg |
Dw |
twist wrist back & forth |
— |
| Dŋ |
Dr |
Dn |
nod hand, bend wrist |
Dŋ |
rD |
Dn |
bent wrist |
| D◽[D′] |
D*[D′] |
D][D′] |
open up (resulting Dez D’ shown in brackets) |
D◽ |
*D |
D] |
open |
| D#[D′] |
D#[D′] |
D#[D′] |
close (resulting Dez D’ shown in brackets) |
D# |
#D |
D# |
closed |
| Dᴥ |
De |
De |
wriggle fingers
(symbol looks like a cursive e) |
— |
| D@ |
D@ |
D@ |
circle
(symbol is a spiral) |
— |
| D⁾⁽ |
D)( |
D) |
approach, move together |
D₎₍ |
)(D |
D) |
near |
| D× |
Dx |
Dx |
contact, touch |
D× |
xD |
Dx |
touching |
| D≬ |
D$ |
Dg |
link, grasp |
D≬ |
$D |
Dg |
linked |
| D‡ |
D+ |
D+ |
cross |
D‡ |
D
D+ |
crossed |
| Dʘ |
Do |
Do |
enter |
Dʘ |
oD |
Do |
inside |
| D÷ |
D% |
D: |
separate |
— |
| D |
D§ or D& |
D( |
exchange positions |
— |
* Proper display requires installation of the Stokoe font available at the external link below.
- 1 TDx-v-x in ASCII
- 2 TDxv in ASCII
- 3 TDx! in ASCII
- 4 Closing hand and closed hand would be D# and #D in the ASCII system.
Several linguists, including, Kyle & Woll, state that Stokoe's tab conflates two parameters, handshape and orientation, and split off ori (orientation of the hand) as a fourth parameter. Kendon, however, notes how this greatly complicates the phonological description of signs, and prefers to retain orientation as an aspect of the handshape, with changes of orientation analysed as other changes in the hands, rather than as changes in an independent parameter.
Relative location
When the tab is a hand shape, or the dez consists of two hands, a symbol may be placed between the two letters to indicate their relative position. These include a few of the movement/orientation letters above. In addition, there are symbols to indicate position above, below, next to, and behind: the underscore on the B in shows that the L hand is placed under a B hand, with or without contact, etc.
| Unicode |
ASCII* |
Description |
|
| B A |
(underline) A under B |
|
|
| (overline) A over B |
|
| >B |
B next to B |
|
| A\A |
A behind A |
| B‡B |
B+B |
B hands or forearms cross |
| F |
F$F |
F hands (fingers) clasped or linked |
| G |
5oG |
G hand (finger) within 5 hand (between fingers) |
* The free font does not cover these symbols
Example
This is the ASL word in Stokoe notation:
The first letter, (like a U), shows that the word is signed at the lower face (mouth or chin). The second, , shows that the hand has the shape of a fingerspelled "V". The V has two diacritics: the three dots … above it show that the fingers are bent (curled), while the subscript shows that the hand is held with the back of the hand facing up. The last letters, @
⊥, are a compound sig: the spiral shows a circular motion, and the tack underneath shows that the motion proceeds outward. This is a mimetic sign for 'snake', mimicking the motion of a fanged snake (Stokoe et al. 1965:168). It is alphabetized under to the tab U, then by the dez V, then by the sig @; the searcher does not need to know what it means or that it is glossed with the English word in order to look it up.
Following is a passage from Goldilocks:
| BɑBɑz~ |
√V⃛√V⃛ ɑ̇• |
Ʒ⊥ |
[]√C‡√Cv
ו |
ȜY@
v |
√Gʌ<v< |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- The story "Goldilocks and the Three Bears". Deep in
ɑ√Bʌω
> |
G⊥ |
BʌˡBʌ÷
v |
Ȧ@× |
BɒBɒ⊥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
- the woods, there is a house sitting on a hill. (If you) go in,
| G> |
ᴖ5× |
[]√C‡√Cv
ו |
X⊥X⊥÷
ɑ |
B⊤Vɒv• |
ɑL#• |
X⊥X⊥÷
ɑ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- (you will see) there Papa Bear reading the paper.
Published use of Stokoe notation
The first use of Stokoe notation appeared in the ASL Dictionary compiled by William Stokoe for which it was devised. Other indigenous sign language dictionary projects, for example a BSL–English dictionary and Signs of a Sexual Nature have included Stokoe notation. The notation has also been used to analyze Australian Aboriginal sign languages. These non-ASL projects have had to extend the notation to cover phonemes not found in ASL.
External links
- Free Stokoe font (somewhat amateurish)
- Description on the SignWriting site
- The MUSSLAP Project Multimodal Human Speech and Sign Language Processing for Human-Machine Communication.
- ASCII-Stokoe Notation Method for writing Stokoe in ASCII
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange is a character-encoding scheme based on the ordering of the English alphabet. ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that use text...
by Mark A. Mandel