The
Sierra Leone Civil War began in 1991, by the
Revolutionary United FrontThe Revolutionary United Front was a rebel army that fought a failed eleven-year war in Sierra Leone, starting in 1991 and ending in 2002. It later developed into a political party, which existed until 2007...
(RUF) under
Foday SankohFoday Saybana Sankoh was the leader and founder of the Sierra Leone rebel group Revolutionary United Front in the 10-year-long Sierra Leone Civil War, starting in 1991 and ending in 2002...
. Tens of thousands died and more than 2 million people (well over one-third of the population) were displaced because of the 11-year conflict. Neighbouring countries became host to significant numbers of refugees attempting to escape the civil war. It was officially declared over on 18 January 2002.
Origins and causes
In 1985, Joseph Momoh, a military leader, was installed as president of
Sierra LeoneSierra Leone , officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea in the north, Liberia in the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean in the southwest. Sierra Leone covers a total area of and has a population estimated at 6.4 million...
. One major opposition group consisted of students including Foday Sankoh, Abu Ahmed Kanu, and Rashid Mansaray. Many students were expelled from the country and this group fled to
GhanaThe Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa which borders Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south...
and then
LibyaLibya , officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya , is a country located in North Africa...
where they attended Moammar Qaddafi's secret service military training facility. The group recruited unemployed young men and students, but as the group grew, internal squabbles arose, and many left the group, some students to universities in Ghana, others back to Sierra Leone. However, others (including Kanu, Mansaray, and Sankoh) were still interested in revolution. The group then went to
Kono DistrictKono District is a district in the Eastern Province of Sierra Leone. Its capital and largest city is Koidu Town, which is also the fourth largest city in Sierra Leone. The other major town in the district is Yengema and Tombodu. The population of Kono District was 335,401 in the 2004 census...
and toured the diamond mines, talking with workers about their situation, and spreading a revolutionary ideology.
Control of Sierra Leone's
diamondIn mineralogy, diamond is an allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is the second most stable form of carbon, after graphite; however, the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is...
industry was a primary objective for the war. Although endowed with abundant natural resources, Sierra Leone was ranked as the poorest country in the world by 1998. With the breakdown of all state structures, wide corridors of Sierra Leonean society were opened up to the trafficking of arms and ammunition, and an illegal trade in recreational drugs from
LiberiaLiberia , officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the west coast of Africa, bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2008 Census, the nation is home to 3,476,608 people and covers ....
and
GuineaGuinea, officially Republic of Guinea , is a country in West Africa formerly known as French Guinea . The country's current population is estimated at 10,211,437 ....
.
Beginning of the civil war
The RUF launched its first campaign into eastern
KailahunKailahun is a rural town in Sierra Leone and the capital of Kailahun District in the Eastern Province. The town lies just over 215 miles east of Freetown and with a population of 25,210. The population of Kailahun is predominantly from the Mende ethnic group...
(Sierra Leone) from Liberia on March 23, 1991. In the four months following, about 107,000 refugees fled the conflict into
GuineaGuinea, officially Republic of Guinea , is a country in West Africa formerly known as French Guinea . The country's current population is estimated at 10,211,437 ....
. Foday Sankoh was head of the military wing of the RUF. According to Sierra Leone and writer Abdul Koroma, the rebels were quick to demonstrate their brutality, decapitating community leaders and putting their heads on stakes.
Forced recruitment of children was also a later feature of the government strategy. The intellectuals in the RUF opposed the methods being used, but within the first year of the rebellion these individuals had been eliminated as Sankoh took over the movement. Among the victims were two of Sankoh's allies.
A series of military coups
In contested elections in March 1967, the All Peoples Congress (APC) won a plurality of the parliamentary seats. Accordingly, the
Governor-GeneralA governor-general, also known as governor general, is a vice-regal representative of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription...
(representing the British Monarch) declared
Siaka StevensSiaka Probyn Stevens was the 3rd prime minister of Sierra Leone from 1967-1971 and the 1st president of Sierra Leone from 1971-1985...
—APC leader and Mayor of
FreetownFreetown is the capital and largest city of Sierra Leone. It is a major port city on the Atlantic Ocean located in the Western Area of the country and with a population of 1,070,200. The city is the economic and financial center of Sierra Leone...
—as the new Prime Minister. Within a few hours, Stevens and Margai were placed under house arrest by
Brigadier David LansanaBrigadier David Lansana was appointed army commander of Sierra Leone in 1964.. Brigadier Lansana took control of the army from British colonial adviser, brigadier R.D. Blackie when Lansana's close ally Prime Minister Albert Margai came to power...
, the Commander of the Republic of Sierra Leone Military Forces (RSLMF), on grounds that the determination of office should await the election of the tribal representatives to the house. Another group of officers soon staged another coup, only to be later ousted in a third coup, the "sergeants’ revolt," and Stevens at last, in April 1968, assumed the office of Prime Minister under the restored constitution. Siaka Stevens remained as head of state until 1985. Under his rule, in 1978, the constitution was amended and all political parties, other than the ruling APC, were banned. In August 1985, the APC named military commander Major-General
Joseph Saidu MomohJoseph Saidu Momoh was President of Sierra Leone from November, 1985 to April 29, 1992.- Biography :Joseph Saidu Momoh was born on January 26, 1937 in Binkolo, Bombali District in the Northern Province of Sierra Leone to Limba Parents. He married to a Fullani woman from Kono Mrs Fatmata N...
, Stevens' own choice, as the party candidate to succeed Stevens. Momoh was elected President in a one-party referendum on 1 October 1985. In October 1991 Momoh had the constitution amended once again, re-establishing a multi-party system. Under Momoh, APC rule was increasingly marked by abuses of power.
The RUF
In March 1991, a small band of men who called themselves the
Revolutionary United FrontThe Revolutionary United Front was a rebel army that fought a failed eleven-year war in Sierra Leone, starting in 1991 and ending in 2002. It later developed into a political party, which existed until 2007...
(RUF) under the leadership of a former-
corporalCorporal is a rank in use in some form by most militaries and also by some police forces or other uniformed organizations. It is usually equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-4. The word is probably derived from a medieval Italian phrase capo corporale, meaning "head of a body "...
,
Foday SankohFoday Saybana Sankoh was the leader and founder of the Sierra Leone rebel group Revolutionary United Front in the 10-year-long Sierra Leone Civil War, starting in 1991 and ending in 2002...
, began to attack villages in eastern Sierra Leone on the Liberian border. The RUF's signature terror tactic was physical mutilation. An estimated 20,000 civilians suffered amputation, with machetes and axes being used to sever arms, legs, lips, and ears. Fighting continued in the ensuing months, with the RUF gaining control of the diamond mines in the
Kono DistrictKono District is a district in the Eastern Province of Sierra Leone. Its capital and largest city is Koidu Town, which is also the fourth largest city in Sierra Leone. The other major town in the district is Yengema and Tombodu. The population of Kono District was 335,401 in the 2004 census...
and pushing the Sierra Leone army back towards
FreetownFreetown is the capital and largest city of Sierra Leone. It is a major port city on the Atlantic Ocean located in the Western Area of the country and with a population of 1,070,200. The city is the economic and financial center of Sierra Leone...
. RUF members would often destroy villages and kill most of the civilians except a few men and boys aging anywhere from 7 to around 40. They would kill anyone that tried to escape. Other civilians were mutilated and sent to neighboring villages as a warning. They would sometimes take a few civilians as hostages to stop the military from attacking them. After the rebels ran out of supplies in a village, they would often burn it and kill whoever remained.
On 29 April 1992, a group of young military officers, led by Capt.
Valentine StrasserValentine Esegragbo Melvine Strasser is a former head of state of Sierra Leone from 1992-1996 . He was a junior military officer until 1992 , when he became the youngest Head of State in the world when he seized power just 3 days after his 25th birthday...
, launched a military coup, which sent Momoh into exile in
GuineaGuinea, officially Republic of Guinea , is a country in West Africa formerly known as French Guinea . The country's current population is estimated at 10,211,437 ....
and established the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC).
The NPRC proved to be nearly as ineffectual as the Momoh government in repelling the RUF. More and more of the country fell to RUF fighters, so that by 1995 they held much of the countryside and were on the doorstep of
FreetownFreetown is the capital and largest city of Sierra Leone. It is a major port city on the Atlantic Ocean located in the Western Area of the country and with a population of 1,070,200. The city is the economic and financial center of Sierra Leone...
. To rectify the situation, the NUYTR hired several thousand mercenaries from the private firm
Executive OutcomesExecutive Outcomes was a private military company founded in South Africa by former Lieutenant-Colonel of the South African Defence Force Eeben Barlow in 1989. It later became part of the South African-based holding company Strategic Resource Corporation....
. Within a month they had driven RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone’s borders.
Return of Civilian Government
As a result of popular demand and mounting international pressure, the NPRC agreed to hand over power to a civilian government via presidential and parliamentary elections, which were held in April 1996.
Ahmad Tejan KabbahAlhaji Ahmad Tejan Kabbah was the 3rd President of Sierra Leone, serving from 1996 to 1997 and from 1998 to 2007. He worked for the United Nations Development Programme and returned to Sierra Leone in 1992...
, a diplomat who had worked at the UN for more than 20 years, won the presidential election. Because of the prevailing war conditions, parliamentary elections were conducted, for the first time, under the system of proportional representation. Thirteen political parties participated, with the SLPP winning 27 seats, UNPP 17, PDP 12, APC 5 and DCP 3. Two months later, discussions began between the SLPP and the RUF in the town of
YamoussoukroThe District of Yamoussoukro is the official capital city of Côte d'Ivoire. A city of 200,659 inhabitants as of 2005, and located north of Abidjan on rolling hills and plains, the municipality covers 3,500 km² and is coterminous with the department of the same name...
, which led eventually to the signing of the
Abidjan Peace AccordThe Abidjan Peace Accord was a treaty signed between the Sierra Leone People's Party government of Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, and the Revolutionary United Front rebel group led by Foday Sankoh to find a resolution to the Sierra Leone Civil War...
in
AbidjanAbidjan is the economic and former official capital of Côte d'Ivoire . It is the largest city in the nation, and the third largest French speaking city in the world. It has, according to the authorities of the country in 2006, 5,068,858 residents in the municipal area and 3,796,677 residents in the...
,
Côte d'Ivoire' , formerly named, and often referred to as the Ivory Coast, officially the ', is a country in West Africa. The government officially discourages the use of the name Ivory Coast in English, preferring the French name to be used in all languages.With an area of 322,462 km
2 Côte...
on 30 November 1996. The agreement quickly broke down as the RUF could not agree on disarmament and the creation of a monitoring force.
The
Armed Forces Revolutionary CouncilThe Armed Forces Revolutionary Council was a group of Sierra Leone soldiers that allied itself with the rebel Revolutionary United Front in the late 1990s. While the AFRC briefly controlled the country in 1998, it was driven from the capital by a coalition of West African troops...
(AFRC), led by Major
Johnny Paul KoromaJohnny Paul Koroma was the Head of State of Sierra Leone from May 1997 to February 1998.-Youth and Education :...
, overthrew President Kabbah on 25 May 1997, and invited the RUF to join the government. After 10 months in office, the junta was ousted by the Nigerian-led Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) forces, and the democratically elected government of President Kabbah was reinstated in March 1998. On 6 January 1999, the RUF launched another attempt to overthrow the government, beginning the
Siege of FreetownThe Siege of Freetown was a battle during the Sierra Leone Civil War. It began when Johnny Paul Koroma took over the power from Ahmad Tejan Kabbah and began a dictatorship. In response, ECOMOG troops, led by Nigeria, helped the Sierra Leone Army to attack and remove Koroma from power and Kabbah was...
. Fighting reached parts of Freetown, leaving thousands dead and wounded. ECOMOG forces drove back the RUF attack several weeks later.
With the assistance of the international community, President Kabbah and RUF leader Sankoh negotiated the
Lomé Peace AccordThe Lomé Peace Accord was a peace agreement signed on 7 July, 1999 between the warring parties in the civil war that gripped Sierra Leone for almost a decade. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah signed with the Revolutionary United Front leader, Foday Sankoh, granting Sankoh a position in the...
, which was signed on 7 July 1999. The accord made Sankoh Vice President and gave other RUF members positions in the government, and called for an international peacekeeping force which would initially be under both ECOMOG and the
United NationsThe United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace...
. The UN Security Council established the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) in 1999, with an initial force of 6,000. ECOMOG forces departed in April 2000. Almost immediately, however, the RUF began to violate the agreement, most notably by holding hundreds of UNAMSIL personnel hostage and capturing their arms and ammunition in the first half of 2000. On 8 May 2000, members of the RUF shot and killed as many as 20 people demonstrating against the RUF violations outside Sankoh's house in Freetown. As a result, Sankoh and other senior members of the RUF were arrested and the group was stripped of its positions in government.
In May 2000, the situation in the country deteriorated to such an extent that British troops were deployed in
Operation PalliserOperation Palliser was a British Armed forces operation in Sierra Leone in 2000 under the command of Brigadier David Richards.-Tactical situation:...
to evacuate foreign nationals and establish order. They stabilized the situation, and were the catalyst for a ceasefire and ending of the civil war.
End of the Civil War
After the events of May 2000, a new cease-fire was necessary to reinvigorate the peace process. This agreement was signed November of that year in Abuja. However,
Disarmament, Demobilization and ReintegrationDisarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration is an applied strategy for executing successful peacekeeping operations, and is generally the strategy employed by all UN Peacekeeping Operations...
did not resume, and fighting continued. In late 2000, Guinean forces entered Sierra Leone to attack RUF bases from which attacks had been launched against Liberian dissidents in Guinea. A second Abuja Agreement, in May 2001, set the stage for a resumption of DDR on a wide scale and a significant reduction in hostilities. As disarmament progressed, the government began to reassert its authority in formerly rebel-held areas. By early 2002 , some 72,000 ex-combatants had been disarmed and demobilized, although many still awaited re-integration assistance (Cooper 2004, 110, Bell 2005). On 18 January 2002 President Kabbah declared the civil war officially over.
Post Civil War
In May 2002 President Kabbah and his party, the SLPP, won landslide victories in the presidential and legislative elections. Kabbah was re-elected for a five year term. The RUF political wing, the RUFP, failed to win a single seat in parliament. The elections were marked by irregularities and allegations of fraud, but not to a degree to significantly affect the outcome.
On 28 July 2002 the British withdrew a 200-man military contingent that had been in country since the summer of 2000, leaving behind a 140-strong military training team to work to professionalize the Sierra Leone army or Navy.
In November 2002, UNAMSIL began a gradual reduction from a peak level of 17,800 personnel (Bell 2005). Under pressure from the British, the withdrawal slowed, so that by October 2003 the UNAMSIL contingent still stood at 12,000 men. As peaceful conditions continued through 2004, however, UNAMSIL drew down its forces to slightly over 4,100 by December 2004 . The UN Security Council extended UNAMSIL’s mandate until June 2005 and again until December 2005. UNAMSIL completed the withdrawal of all troops 1 January 2006.
The Lome Accord called for the establishment of a
Truth and Reconciliation CommissionA truth commission or truth and reconciliation commission is a commission tasked with discovering and revealing past wrongdoing by a government , in the hope of resolving conflict left over from the past...
to provide a forum for both victims and perpetrators of human rights violations during the conflict to tell their stories and facilitate genuine reconciliation. Subsequently, the Sierra Leonean government asked the UN to help set up a
Special Court for Sierra LeoneThe Special Court for Sierra Leone is an independent judicial body set up to "try those who bear greatest responsibility" for the war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in Sierra Leone after 30 November 1996 during the Sierra Leone Civil War...
, which would try those who "bear the greatest responsibility for the commission of crimes against humanity, war crimes and serious violations of international humanitarian law, as well as crimes under relevant Sierra Leonean law within the territory of Sierra Leone since November 31, 1999." Both the
Truth and Reconciliation CommissionThe Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established as a condition of the Lomé Peace Accord with the assistance of the international community. It was signed by President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah and RUF leader Foday Sankoh on July 7, 1999. It is chaired by retired Rev. Dr. Joseph...
and the Special Court began operating in the summer of 2002.
Aftermath
Nine years of civil war, atrocities, and ineffectual intervention by ECOMOG—which became just another faction in the war—crippled Sierra Leone. While RUF rebels controlled the diamond trade, the people remained among the poorest on Earth. The 1999 Lomé Agreement failed to bring peace as it effectively institutionalized rebel control of the diamond trade by putting rebel chief Foday Sankoh in charge of mineral resources. Civil war resumed as UN forces sought to wrest control of the diamond fields, but found themselves instead being held hostage by the rebels. With a rebel take-over of the capital imminent, British forces unilaterally intervened in May 2000 to evacuate British subjects and safeguard the Freetown airport for UN use. Within days the British took effective control of the government and organized an offensive against the rebels. The rebel leader was captured, the peace process resumed, and the British left a training team to reconstruct the armed forces into an instrument of reliable state security. Within a year of British intervention, UN forces were in full control of the country, and gradually began handing over control to the reconstituted and retrained Sierra Leone armed forces. The British looked to the Americans to similarly solve the Liberian problem in order to provide stability on Sierra Leone's borders and restore normal market forces to the diamond trade. The Liberian war ended in 2003 with ECOWAS and US intervention, followed in 2006 by the trial of its former President Charles Taylor for crimes against humanity in Sierra Leone and Liberia, the first such trial in Africa.
Prosecution
On 13 January 2003 a small group of armed men tried unsuccessfully to break into an armory in Freetown. Former AFRC-junta leader Koroma, after being linked to the raid, went into hiding. In March the
Special Court for Sierra LeoneThe Special Court for Sierra Leone is an independent judicial body set up to "try those who bear greatest responsibility" for the war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in Sierra Leone after 30 November 1996 during the Sierra Leone Civil War...
issued its first indictments for war crimes during the civil war. Foday Sankoh, already in custody, was indicted, along with notorious RUF field commander
Sam "Mosquito" BockarieSam "Mosquito" Bockarie was a leading member of the Revolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone. Bockarie was infamous during the Sierra Leone Civil War for his brutal tactics, which included amputation, mutilation, and rape. He earned the nickname "Mosquito" for his ability to attack when his...
, Koroma, the Minister of Interior and former head of the Civil Defense Force,
Samuel Hinga NormanSamuel Hinga Norman was a Sierra Leonean politician from the Mende tribe. He was the founder and leader of the traditional Civil Defence Forces, commonly known as the Kamajors...
, and several others. Norman was arrested when the indictments were announced, while Bockarie and Koroma remained at large (presumably in Liberia). On 5 May 2003 Bockarie was killed in Liberia. President Charles G. Taylor expected to be indicted by the Special Court and had feared Bockarie’s testimony; he is suspected of ordering Bockarie's murder, although no indictments are pending. Several weeks later, word filtered out of Liberia that Koroma had been killed as well, although his death remains unconfirmed. In June the Special Court announced Taylor’s indictment for war crimes. Sankoh died in prison in Freetown 29 July 2003 from a heart attack. He had been ailing for some time.
In August 2003 President Kabbah testified before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on his role during the civil war.
On 1 December 2003 Major General Brigadier
Tom CarewTom Carew was Brigadier Major General in the Sierra Leonean army and Chief of Defence Staff of the Government of Sierra Leone from April 2000 to November 2003, at which point Sierra Leone President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah re-assigned him to non-military duties....
, who had been the Chief of Defence Staff for the Government of Sierra Leone and an important figure in the Sierra Leonean army, was reassigned to civilian duties.
In June 2007, the Special Court found three of the eleven people indicted – Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu – guilty of war crimes, including acts of
terrorismTerrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion.At present, there is no internationally agreed definition of terrorism...
,
collective punishmentCollective punishment is the punishment of a group of people as a result of the behaviour of one or more other individuals or groups. The punished group may often have no direct association with the other individuals or groups, or direct control over their actions...
s, extermination,
murderMurder, as defined in common law countries, is the unlawful killing of another human being with intent , and generally this state of mind distinguishes murder from other forms of unlawful homicide...
,
rapeRape, also referred to as sexual assault, is an assault by a person involving sexual intercourse with or without sexual penetration of another person without that person's consent....
, outrages upon personal dignity,
conscripting or enlisting childrenThe military use of children takes three distinct forms: children can take direct part in hostilities , or they can be used in support roles such as porters, spies, messengers, look outs, and sexual slaves; or they can be used for political advantage either as human shields or in...
under the age of 15 years into armed forces,
enslavementSlavery is a form of forced labor in which people are considered to be the property of others. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to receive compensation...
and pillage.
Diamond revenues in Sierra Leone have increased more than tenfold since the end of the conflict, from $10 million in 2000 to about $130 million in 2004, although according to the UNAMSIL surveys of mining sites, "more than 50 per cent of diamond mining still remains unlicensed and reportedly considerable illegal smuggling of diamonds continues".
Depictions
The civil war served as the background for the
2006 movieThe year 2006 in film saw many new films released worldwide, including several major mainstream sequels, prequels, and remakes as well as original films.-Top grossing films:...
Blood DiamondBlood Diamond is a 2006 action/adventure drama film co-produced and directed by Edward Zwick, director of Glory and The Last Samurai, and starring Leonardo DiCaprio, Jennifer Connelly and Djimon Hounsou...
, starring
Leonardo DiCaprioLeonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio is an American actor and film producer whose career rose with his role in the television sit-com Growing Pains....
,
Djimon HounsouDjimon Gaston Hounsou is a Beninese actor and model. As an actor, Hounsou has been nominated for two Academy Awards.-Early life:...
and
Jennifer ConnellyJennifer Lynn Connelly is an American film actress and former child model. Although starring as early as a teenager in films such as Once Upon a Time in America, Labyrinth and Career Opportunities, she gained critical acclaim following her work in the 2000 drama Requiem for a Dream, and the 2001...
.
During the end of the movie
Lord of WarLord of War is a 2005 political crime thriller written and directed by Andrew Niccol which stars Nicolas Cage. It was released in the United States on September 16, 2005, with the DVD following on January 17, 2006 and the Blu-ray Disc on July 27, 2006. Cage plays the illegal arms dealer with...
, Yuri Orlov (played by
Nicolas CageNicolas Cage is an American actor.Cage pursued acting as a career, making his debut on television in 1981...
) sells arms to militias during the civil war. The militias are allied with André Baptiste (
Eamonn WalkerEamonn Walker is an English film, television and theatre actor. In the United States he is perhaps best known for playing Kareem Said in the HBO television series Oz, for which he won a CableACE Award, and as Winston, the gay, black thorn in Alf Garnett's side in In Sickness and in Health and John...
), who is based on Charles Taylor.
The use of children in both the rebel (RUF) military and the government militia is depicted in
Ishmael BeahIshmael Beah is a former Sierra Leonean child soldier, and the author of the memoir, A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier.-Early years:...
's 2007 book
A Long Way Gone.
Mariatu Kamara wrote about being attacked by the rebels and having her hands chopped off in her book
The Bite of the Mango. She also met with
Ishmael BeahIshmael Beah is a former Sierra Leonean child soldier, and the author of the memoir, A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier.-Early years:...
.
Sources
- US Dept of State Background Note: Sierra Leone
- AFROL Background: The civil war in Sierra Leone
- Adebajo, Adekeye. Liberia's Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and regional security in West Africa. Lynne Rienner Publishers
Lynne Rienner Publishers is an independent scholarly and textbook publishing firm. It was founded in 1984 and publishes in the fields of international studies and comparative politics in relation to the world. It also publishes about US politics,sociology and criminology. They also translate...
, 2002
- Bell, Udy. Sierra Leone: Building on a Hard-Won Peace. 2000, UN Chronicle Online Edition, Issue 4 (Accessed May 31, 2007 here)
- Cooper, Niel and Goodhand, Jonathan. War Economies in a Regional Context: Challenges of Transformation 2004 Lynne Rienner Publishers by Neil. Cooper, Jonathan. Goodhand - 2004
- Hirsch; John L; Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for Democracy, Lynne Rienner Pub (December 1, 2000).
- Jalloh, S Balimo; Conflicts, Resources and Social Instability in Subsahara Africa – The Sierra Leone Case; in Internationasles Afrikaforum, 37. Jg (Germany), 2/2001, Pages 166-180.
- Koroma, Abdul Karim. Crisis and Intervention in Sierra Leone 1997-2003. Freetown and London (2004) Andromeda Publications
External links