Shinbutsu Bunri
Encyclopedia
The term in Japanese indicates the forbidding by law of the amalgamation of kami
and buddhas
made during the Meiji Restoration
. It also indicates the effort made by the Japanese government to create a clear division between native kami beliefs and Buddhism on one side, and Buddhist temples
and shrines on the other. Until the end of Edo period, local kami beliefs and Buddhism were intimately connected in what was called shinbutsu shūgō
(神仏習合), up to the point that even the same buildings were used as both Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples.
The tendency to oppose Buddhism can be seen already during the early modern era as a nationalistic reaction to its spreading but the term usually indicates the anti-Buddhist movement that, from the middle of the Edo period
onwards, accompanied Confucianism
, the study of ancient Japanese literature and culture (kokugaku
), and Shinto nationalism, all movements with reasons to oppose Buddhism. In a narrower sense, shinbutsu bunri is the policy of separation of Shinto and Buddhism pursued by the new Meiji government
with the . This last event is of particular historical importance, partly because it triggered the haibutsu kishaku
, a violent anti-Buddhist movement which in the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate
and during the Meiji Restoration
caused the forcible closure of thousands of temples, the confiscation of their land, the forced return to lay life of monks, and the destruction of books, statues and other Buddhist property. Even Buddhist bronze bells were melted to make cannons. After a short period in which it enjoyed popular favor, the process of separation of Buddhas and kami however stalled and is still only partially completed: even today any major Buddhist temple has a small shrine dedicated to its Shinto tutelary kami, and vice-versa Buddhist figures (e.g. goddess Kannon) are revered in Shinto shrines. If the policy failed in its short-term aims and was ultimately abandoned, it was successful in the long term in creating a new religious status quo in which Shinto and Buddhism were perceived as different, independent and equal in standing.
, Mito
, and Yodo Domain
s. For example, in the 1660s Tokugawa Mitsukuni
in Mito forcibly closed a thousand temples and ordered the building of one shrine per village.
, Neo-Confucian
, Shinto
, and Kokugaku
scholars like Toju Nakae
, Kumazawa Banzan, Yamaga Sokō
, Itō Jinsai
, Ogyū Sorai
, Norinaga Motoori, and Hirata Atsutane
. Because motives were different and often in contrast, there was no political unity among them. In fact, while there were modernizers, criticism often stemmed from a feudalistic mentality or from an emotional and simplistic nationalism.
, Buddhism had become an integral part of the state as a consequence of the Tokugawas' anti-Christian policy. To stop the propagation of Christianity, they had introduced the danka system
, which obliged families to affiliate themselves with a Buddhist temple. In return, this would certify with a so-called terauke that they were not Christian. Without a terauke, leading a normal life in Tokugawa Japan was impossible. Families had by law several obligations towards Buddhist institutions, among them monetary donations to their temple of affiliation. Because there were some 100,000 temples in a country of 30 million people, on average 300 persons had to support a temple, so the burden was considerable. This caused widespread discontent and ultimately led to a backlash. The fact that Buddhism was so deeply involved with the shoguns also meant that it had become one of its symbols and an enemy of all those who wanted the shogunate's fall. All these parties wanted to see Buddhism cut down to size, and the strengthening of Shinto was considered a good way to achieve the goal.
, Hayashi Razan
, and Yamazaki Ansai
were all former Rinzai priests.
was a school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period. Kokugaku scholars tended to relativize the study of Chinese and Buddhist texts and favored philological research into the early Japanese classics. Kokugaku scholars criticized the repressive moralizing of Confucian thinkers, and tried to re-establish Japanese culture before the influx of foreign modes of thought and behavior. One of its most influential exponents was scholar Norinaga Motoori.
In the mid-nineteenth century, kokugaku students became involved in the fight against the shogunate and in favor of the emperor. They claimed that ancient Japanese documents said the emperor alone was divinely authorized to rule Japan.
(shrine monks performing Buddhist rites at Shinto shrines).
A few days later, the Daijōkan banned the application of Buddhist terminology such as gongen
to Japanese kami
and the veneration of Buddhist statues in shrines.
The third stage consisted of the prohibition against applying the Buddhist term Daibosatsu (Great Bodhisattva
) to the syncretic kami Hachiman
at the Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū and Usa Hachiman-gū
shrines.
In the fourth and final stage, all the defrocked bettō and shasō were told to become "shrine priests" (kannushi
) and return to their shrines. Also, monks of the Nichiren
sect were told not to refer to some deities as kami.
The Meiji government's policies however caused the diffusion of the idea that Shinto was the true religion of the Japanese, finally revealed after remaining for a long time hidden behind Buddhism. In recent years, however, many historians have come to believe that the syncretism of kami
and buddhas was just as authentically Japanese.
The Japanese government was also successful in creating the impression that Shinto and Buddhism in Japan are completely independent religions. Most Japanese today are unaware that some of their customary religious practices cannot be understood outside the context of the syncretism of kami
and Buddhas. In discussing some Japanese Buddhist temples dedicated to the cult of kami Inari
, Shinto scholar Karen Smyers comments:
In any case, in less than two decades Buddhism had not only had recovered, but had modernized itself, becoming once more a significant force. This led to the coexistence of Shinto and Buddhism as we see it today.
The shinbutsu bunri policy was itself the direct cause of serious damage to important cultural properties. Because mixing the two religions was now forbidden, shrines and temples had to give away some of their treasures, thus damaging the integrity of their cultural heritage and decreasing the historical and economic value of their properties. For example, Kamakura
's Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū's giant (the two wooden wardens usually found at the sides of a temple's entrance), being objects of Buddhist worship and therefore illegal where they were, were sold to Jufuku-ji
, where they still are. The shrine also had to destroy Buddhism-related buildings, for example its tahōtō
tower, its , and its . Many Buddhist temples were simply closed, like Zenkō-ji, to which the now-independent Meigetsu-in
used to belong.
Another consequence of the policy was the creation of so-called "invented traditions". To avoid the destruction of material illegal under the new rules, Shinto and Buddhist priests invented traditions, genealogies and other information that justified its presence. Later, awareness of their origin was often lost, causing considerable confusion among historians.
Kami
is the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term...
and buddhas
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
made during the Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
. It also indicates the effort made by the Japanese government to create a clear division between native kami beliefs and Buddhism on one side, and Buddhist temples
Buddhist temples in Japan
Along with Shinto shrines, Buddhist temples are the most numerous, famous, and important religious buildings in Japan.The term "Shinto shrine" is used in opposition to "Buddhist temple" to mirror in English the distinction made in Japanese between Shinto and Buddhist religious structures. In...
and shrines on the other. Until the end of Edo period, local kami beliefs and Buddhism were intimately connected in what was called shinbutsu shūgō
Shinbutsu Shugo
, literally "syncretism of kami and buddhas" is the syncretism of Buddhism and kami worship which was Japan's religion until the Meiji period...
(神仏習合), up to the point that even the same buildings were used as both Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples.
The tendency to oppose Buddhism can be seen already during the early modern era as a nationalistic reaction to its spreading but the term usually indicates the anti-Buddhist movement that, from the middle of the Edo period
Edo period
The , or , is a division of Japanese history which was ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family, running from 1603 to 1868. The political entity of this period was the Tokugawa shogunate....
onwards, accompanied Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
, the study of ancient Japanese literature and culture (kokugaku
Kokugaku
Kokugaku was a National revival, or, school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period...
), and Shinto nationalism, all movements with reasons to oppose Buddhism. In a narrower sense, shinbutsu bunri is the policy of separation of Shinto and Buddhism pursued by the new Meiji government
Government of Meiji Japan
The Government of Meiji Japan was the government which was formed by politicians of the Satsuma Domain, Chōshū Domain and Tenno. The Meiji government was the early government of the Empire of Japan....
with the . This last event is of particular historical importance, partly because it triggered the haibutsu kishaku
Haibutsu kishaku
is a term that indicates a current of thought continuous in Japan's history which advocates the expulsion of Buddhism from Japan...
, a violent anti-Buddhist movement which in the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate
Tokugawa shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the and the , was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period is known as the Edo period and gets its name from the capital city, Edo, which is now called Tokyo, after the name was...
and during the Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
caused the forcible closure of thousands of temples, the confiscation of their land, the forced return to lay life of monks, and the destruction of books, statues and other Buddhist property. Even Buddhist bronze bells were melted to make cannons. After a short period in which it enjoyed popular favor, the process of separation of Buddhas and kami however stalled and is still only partially completed: even today any major Buddhist temple has a small shrine dedicated to its Shinto tutelary kami, and vice-versa Buddhist figures (e.g. goddess Kannon) are revered in Shinto shrines. If the policy failed in its short-term aims and was ultimately abandoned, it was successful in the long term in creating a new religious status quo in which Shinto and Buddhism were perceived as different, independent and equal in standing.
Shinbutsu bunri in the early modern age
The shinbutsu bunri, and the haibutsu kishaku it tended to cause, in the early modern age were a phenomenon encountered mostly in domains where anti-Buddhist Confucianism was strong, as the OkayamaOkayama Domain
The ' was a Japanese feudal domain of the Edo period, located in modern-day Okayama Prefecture. The domain sided with the Kyoto government during the Boshin War.-List of Daimyo:*Kobayakawa clan, 1600-1602 #Hideaki...
, Mito
Mito Domain
was a prominent feudal domain in Japan during the Edo period. Its capital was the city of Mito, and it covered much of present-day Ibaraki Prefecture. Beginning with the appointment of Tokugawa Yorifusa by his father, Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu, in 1608, the Mito branch of the Tokugawa clan...
, and Yodo Domain
Yodo Domain
The ' was a Japanese domain of the Edo period, and the only domain located in Yamashiro Province. Its castle was located within modern-day Fushimi, Kyoto....
s. For example, in the 1660s Tokugawa Mitsukuni
Tokugawa Mitsukuni
or was a prominent daimyo who was known for his influence in the politics of the early Edo period. He was the third son of Tokugawa Yorifusa and succeeded him, becoming the second daimyo of the Mito domain....
in Mito forcibly closed a thousand temples and ordered the building of one shrine per village.
Meiji era's Shinbutsu bunri and its causes
Anti-Buddhist feelings had been building up during the last two centuries of the Tokugawa period, and several groups had reasons to oppose Buddhism. The shinbutsu bunri was seen by the new government as a way to permanently weaken Buddhism and lessen its immense economic and social power. At the same time, it was supposed to give Shinto and its cult of the Emperor time to grow, while prodding the Japanese's national pride. The anti-Buddhist movement was led by ConfucianConfucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
, Neo-Confucian
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism is an ethical and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty....
, Shinto
Shinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
, and Kokugaku
Kokugaku
Kokugaku was a National revival, or, school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period...
scholars like Toju Nakae
Toju Nakae
thumb|180px|right|Nakae Tōju was a Japanese Confucian philosopher known as "the sage of Ōmi".Nakae was a feudal retainer who lived during the Tokugawa shogunate. He taught that the highest virtue was filial piety , and acted upon this, giving up his official post in 1634 in order to return to his...
, Kumazawa Banzan, Yamaga Sokō
Yamaga Soko
was a Japanese philosopher and strategist during the Tokugawa shogunate. He was a Confucian, and applied Confucius's idea of the "superior man" to the samurai class of Japan...
, Itō Jinsai
Ito Jinsai
, who also went by the pen name Keisai, was a Japanese Confucian philosopher and educator. He is considered to be one of the most influential Confucian scholars of seventeenth century Japan, and the Tokugawa period generally, his teachings flourishing especially in Kyoto and the Kansai area...
, Ogyū Sorai
Ogyu Sorai
, pen name Butsu Sorai, was a Japanese Confucian philosopher. He has been described as the most influential such scholar during the Tokugawa period. His primary area of study was in applying the teachings of Confucianism to government and social order...
, Norinaga Motoori, and Hirata Atsutane
Hirata Atsutane
was a Japanese scholar, conventionally ranked as one of the four great men of kokugaku studies, and one of the most significant theologians of the Shintō religion. His literary name was Ibukinoya.-Life and thought:...
. Because motives were different and often in contrast, there was no political unity among them. In fact, while there were modernizers, criticism often stemmed from a feudalistic mentality or from an emotional and simplistic nationalism.
The Tokugawa and the danka system
The relationship between Buddhism and the Tokugawa state had been complex. Although the shogunate's official philosophy was lay Neo-ConfucianismNeo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism is an ethical and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty....
, Buddhism had become an integral part of the state as a consequence of the Tokugawas' anti-Christian policy. To stop the propagation of Christianity, they had introduced the danka system
Danka system
The , also known as is a system of voluntary and long-term affiliation between Buddhist temples and households in use in Japan since the Heian period. In it, households financially support a Buddhist temple which, in exchange, provides for their spiritual needs...
, which obliged families to affiliate themselves with a Buddhist temple. In return, this would certify with a so-called terauke that they were not Christian. Without a terauke, leading a normal life in Tokugawa Japan was impossible. Families had by law several obligations towards Buddhist institutions, among them monetary donations to their temple of affiliation. Because there were some 100,000 temples in a country of 30 million people, on average 300 persons had to support a temple, so the burden was considerable. This caused widespread discontent and ultimately led to a backlash. The fact that Buddhism was so deeply involved with the shoguns also meant that it had become one of its symbols and an enemy of all those who wanted the shogunate's fall. All these parties wanted to see Buddhism cut down to size, and the strengthening of Shinto was considered a good way to achieve the goal.
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucian thought in Japan emphasized the use of reason and was essentially humanistic; it therefore rejected Buddhism as superstition. It also emphasized loyalty to the emperor and was fiercely xenophobic. Confucian anti-Buddhism was the cause for example of haibutsu kishaku episodes in the Aizu, Okayama and Mito domains during the early modern era. Some of the leaders of the Neo-Confucian movement were former Buddhist priests. Fujiwara SeikaFujiwara Seika
was a Japanese philosopher, a leading neo-Confucian of the early Tokugawa Period and a teacher of Tokugawa Ieyasu.Like his student, Hayashi Razan , he had studied in Zen monasteries. But in 1598, at Fushimi Castle, he met Gang Hang , a Korean neo-Confucian scholar who was taken prisoner to Japan...
, Hayashi Razan
Hayashi Razan
, also known as Hayashi Dōshun, was a Japanese Neo-Confucian philosopher, serving as a tutor and an advisor to the first four shoguns of the Tokugawa bakufu. He is also attributed with first listing the Three Views of Japan. Razan was the founder of the Hayashi clan of Confucian scholars.Razan was...
, and Yamazaki Ansai
Yamazaki Ansai
was a Japanese philosopher and scholar. He began his career as a Buddhist monk, but eventually came to follow the teachings of Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi. He combined Neo-Confucian ideas with Shinto to create Suika Shinto.-Early Years/Buddhism:...
were all former Rinzai priests.
Kokugaku
KokugakuKokugaku
Kokugaku was a National revival, or, school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period...
was a school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period. Kokugaku scholars tended to relativize the study of Chinese and Buddhist texts and favored philological research into the early Japanese classics. Kokugaku scholars criticized the repressive moralizing of Confucian thinkers, and tried to re-establish Japanese culture before the influx of foreign modes of thought and behavior. One of its most influential exponents was scholar Norinaga Motoori.
In the mid-nineteenth century, kokugaku students became involved in the fight against the shogunate and in favor of the emperor. They claimed that ancient Japanese documents said the emperor alone was divinely authorized to rule Japan.
Modernizers
Modernizers stressed the unscientific character of Buddhism and the drain it was for the national economy.The separation
The Restoration government tried to make a clear distinction between Buddhism and Shinto with a series of edicts. This was done in several stages. A first order issued by the Jingijimuka on April 1868 ordered the defrocking of shasō and bettōBetto
is a term which originally indicated the head of an institution serving temporarily as the head of another one, but which came to mean also the full-time head of some institution...
(shrine monks performing Buddhist rites at Shinto shrines).
A few days later, the Daijōkan banned the application of Buddhist terminology such as gongen
Gongen
During the era of shinbutsu shūgō , in Japan a During the era of shinbutsu shūgō (religious syncretism of kami and buddhas), in Japan a During the era of shinbutsu shūgō (religious syncretism of kami and buddhas), in Japan a ( was believed to be a Japanese kami which was really just the local...
to Japanese kami
Kami
is the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term...
and the veneration of Buddhist statues in shrines.
The third stage consisted of the prohibition against applying the Buddhist term Daibosatsu (Great Bodhisattva
Bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is either an enlightened existence or an enlightenment-being or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, "heroic-minded one for enlightenment ." The Pali term has sometimes been translated as "wisdom-being," although in modern publications, and...
) to the syncretic kami Hachiman
Hachiman
In Japanese mythology, is the Japanese syncretic god of archery and war, incorporating elements from both Shinto and Buddhism. Although often called the god of war, he is more correctly defined as the tutelary god of warriors. He is also divine protector of Japan and the Japanese people...
at the Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū and Usa Hachiman-gū
Usa Shrine
, also known as , is a Shinto shrine in the city of Usa in Ōita Prefecture in Japan. Emperor Ojin, who was deified as Hachiman-jin , is said to be enshrined in all the sites dedicated to him; and the first and earliest of these was at Usa in the early 8th century...
shrines.
In the fourth and final stage, all the defrocked bettō and shasō were told to become "shrine priests" (kannushi
Kannushi
A , also called , is the person responsible for the maintenance of a Shinto shrine as well as for leading worship of a given kami. The characters for kannushi are sometimes also read jinshu with the same meaning....
) and return to their shrines. Also, monks of the Nichiren
Nichiren
Nichiren was a Buddhist monk who lived during the Kamakura period in Japan. Nichiren taught devotion to the Lotus Sutra, entitled Myōhō-Renge-Kyō in Japanese, as the exclusive means to attain enlightenment and the chanting of Nam-Myōhō-Renge-Kyō as the essential practice of the teaching...
sect were told not to refer to some deities as kami.
Consequences of the Separation Policy
The campaign ultimately failed to destroy Buddhism's influence on the Japanese, who still needed funerals, graves and ancestral rites, all services traditionally provided by Buddhism. The state's first attempt to influence religious life therefore resulted in failure. In 1873 the government admitted that the effort to elevate Shinto above Buddhism had failed.The Meiji government's policies however caused the diffusion of the idea that Shinto was the true religion of the Japanese, finally revealed after remaining for a long time hidden behind Buddhism. In recent years, however, many historians have come to believe that the syncretism of kami
Kami
is the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term...
and buddhas was just as authentically Japanese.
The Japanese government was also successful in creating the impression that Shinto and Buddhism in Japan are completely independent religions. Most Japanese today are unaware that some of their customary religious practices cannot be understood outside the context of the syncretism of kami
Kami
is the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term...
and Buddhas. In discussing some Japanese Buddhist temples dedicated to the cult of kami Inari
Inari
Inari may refer to:* Inari , a Shinto spirit** Mount Inari in Japan, site of Fushimi Inari-taisha, the main Shinto shrine to Inari** Inari Shrine, shrines to the Shinto god Inari* Inari Sami, one of the Sami languages...
, Shinto scholar Karen Smyers comments:
In any case, in less than two decades Buddhism had not only had recovered, but had modernized itself, becoming once more a significant force. This led to the coexistence of Shinto and Buddhism as we see it today.
Haibutsu kishaku
Although the government's edicts didn't explicitly order the closing of temples, the destruction of Buddhist property and the defrocking of Buddhist priests and nuns, they were often interpreted as implying it, and the haibutsu kishaku movement soon spread to the entire country with tragic consequences. A substantial part of the population that had felt financially exploited by the participated in the movement. This system, made mandatory by the Tokugawa in order to halt the spread of Christianity, obliged all families to be affiliated to and support a Buddhist temple.The shinbutsu bunri policy was itself the direct cause of serious damage to important cultural properties. Because mixing the two religions was now forbidden, shrines and temples had to give away some of their treasures, thus damaging the integrity of their cultural heritage and decreasing the historical and economic value of their properties. For example, Kamakura
Kamakura, Kanagawa
is a city located in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, about south-south-west of Tokyo. It used to be also called .Although Kamakura proper is today rather small, it is often described in history books as a former de facto capital of Japan as the seat of the Shogunate and of the Regency during the...
's Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū's giant (the two wooden wardens usually found at the sides of a temple's entrance), being objects of Buddhist worship and therefore illegal where they were, were sold to Jufuku-ji
Jufuku-ji
, usually known as Jufuku-ji, is a temple of the Kenchō-ji branch of the Rinzai sect and the oldest Zen temple in Kamakura, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. Ranked third among Kamakura's prestigious Five Mountains, it is number 24 among the pilgrimage temples and number 18 of the temples...
, where they still are. The shrine also had to destroy Buddhism-related buildings, for example its tahōtō
Tahōtō
A is a form of Japanese pagoda found primarily at Esoteric Shingon and Tendai school Buddhist temples. It is unique among pagodas because it has an even number of stories...
tower, its , and its . Many Buddhist temples were simply closed, like Zenkō-ji, to which the now-independent Meigetsu-in
Meigetsu-in
is a Rinzai Zen temple of the Kenchō-ji school in Kita-Kamakura, Kanagawa, Japan. Famous for its hydrangeas, it's also known as The Temple of Hydrangeas . The main object of worship is goddess Shō Kannon .- History :...
used to belong.
Another consequence of the policy was the creation of so-called "invented traditions". To avoid the destruction of material illegal under the new rules, Shinto and Buddhist priests invented traditions, genealogies and other information that justified its presence. Later, awareness of their origin was often lost, causing considerable confusion among historians.
External links
- 明治元年（1868）3月｜神仏分離令が出される：日本のあゆみ 神号々仏語ヲ用ヒ或ハ仏像ヲ神体ト為シ鰐口梵鐘等装置セシ神社改正処分・三条 (Archive of photographs of Meiji document ordering separation of Shinto and Buddhism) National Archives of Japan