Sefire
Encyclopedia
The Sfire or Sefire steles refers to three 8th C. BCE basalt stelae containing Aramaic
inscriptions discovered at Al-Safirah ("Sfire") near Aleppo
that date back to the mid eighth-century BCE. The Sefire treaty inscriptions are the three inscriptions on the steles. The spelling Sfire is also commonly encountered.
inscribed on the stelae are often cited as evidence of the Aramaean tradition of treaty-making. The Sefire inscriptions are of interest to those studying beliefs and practices in ancient Syria
and Palestine
and the text is considered notable for constituting "the best extrabiblical source for West Semitic traditions of covenantal blessings and curses."
They tell of "The treaty of King Bar-ga'yah of K[a]t[a]k, with Mati'el son of Attarsamak, king of Arpad." Some have identified this as the treaty of "Ashurnerari V" (Adad-nirari III
or his son Tiglath-pileser III
?) of Assyria and Matiilu (unknown) of Arpad
(probably modern Tell Rifa'at, Syria).
One is a treaty between two minor kings, Barga'yah and Matti'el, who hailed from the southwestern periphery of the Assyrian empire. In the text, Matti'el swears to accept dire consequences for himself and his cities should he violate the stipulations of the treaty:
This loyalty oath from the Sefire inscriptions is similar to other loyalty oaths imposed by Assyrian kings on other less powerful monarchs in the Levant
throughout the eighth and seventh centuries BCE.
The inscriptions may, under one possible interpretation, record the names of El and Elyon
, "God, God Most High" possibly providing prima facie evidence for a distinction between the two deities first worshipped by the Jebusites in Jerusalem, and then elsewhere throughout the ancient Levant.
Thought to be reflective of Assyrian or neo-Assyrian culture and similar to other documents dating from the first millennium BCE, scholars such as Joseph Fitzmyer
have perceived Canaan
ite influences in the text, while Dennis McCarthy has noted similarities to second millennium BCE treaties imposed by Hittite
kings on Syrian vassals.
Aramaic language
Aramaic is a group of languages belonging to the Afroasiatic language phylum. The name of the language is based on the name of Aram, an ancient region in central Syria. Within this family, Aramaic belongs to the Semitic family, and more specifically, is a part of the Northwest Semitic subfamily,...
inscriptions discovered at Al-Safirah ("Sfire") near Aleppo
Aleppo
Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,301,570 , expanding to over 2.5 million in the metropolitan area, it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant...
that date back to the mid eighth-century BCE. The Sefire treaty inscriptions are the three inscriptions on the steles. The spelling Sfire is also commonly encountered.
Identification of the Treaty kings
Two treaties conducted between minor kings from the Kingdom of ArpadArpad (Syria)
Arpad was an ancient Aramaean city located in north-western Syria, north of Aleppo. In 743 BC, the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III led a military expedition to Syria, defeating there the Uraratian army. But the city of Arpad, which had formed an alliance with Urartu, did not surrender easily...
inscribed on the stelae are often cited as evidence of the Aramaean tradition of treaty-making. The Sefire inscriptions are of interest to those studying beliefs and practices in ancient Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
and Palestine
Palestine
Palestine is a conventional name, among others, used to describe the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, and various adjoining lands....
and the text is considered notable for constituting "the best extrabiblical source for West Semitic traditions of covenantal blessings and curses."
They tell of "The treaty of King Bar-ga'yah of K[a]t[a]k, with Mati'el son of Attarsamak, king of Arpad." Some have identified this as the treaty of "Ashurnerari V" (Adad-nirari III
Adad-nirari III
Adad-nirari III was King of Assyria from 811 to 783 BC. He was the son and successor of Shamshi-Adad V, and was apparently quite young at the time of his accession, because for the first five years of his reign his mother Shammuramat acted as regent, which may have given rise to the legend of...
or his son Tiglath-pileser III
Tiglath-Pileser III
Tiglath-Pileser III was a prominent king of Assyria in the eighth century BC and is widely regarded as the founder of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Tiglath-Pileser III seized the Assyrian throne during a civil war and killed the royal family...
?) of Assyria and Matiilu (unknown) of Arpad
Árpád
Árpád was the second Grand Prince of the Hungarians . Under his rule the Hungarian people settled in the Carpathian basin. The dynasty descending from him ruled the Hungarian tribes and later the Kingdom of Hungary until 1301...
(probably modern Tell Rifa'at, Syria).
Sefire I
This is a basalt slab broken in two horizontally. The first two steles each have three faces bearing writing.Sefire II
As with Sefire I stele Sefire II had three faces bearing writing. While most of the text of Sefire II A and B permit coherent translation only with comparison with Sefire I and III, the concluding portion of Sefire II A and B is quite clear.Overview
The inscriptions record two treaties that "list curses and magical rites which take effect if the treaty is violated."One is a treaty between two minor kings, Barga'yah and Matti'el, who hailed from the southwestern periphery of the Assyrian empire. In the text, Matti'el swears to accept dire consequences for himself and his cities should he violate the stipulations of the treaty:
"....
As this wax is consumed by fire, thus Ma[tti'el] shall be consumed b[y fi]re.
As this bow and these arrows are broken, thus Inurta and HadadHadadHaddad was a northwest Semitic storm and rain god, cognate in name and origin with the Akkadian god Adad. Hadad was often called simply Ba‘al , but this title was also used for other gods. The bull was the symbolic animal of Hadad. He appeared as a bearded deity, often shown as holding a club and...
(= names of local deities) shall break [the bow of Matti'el] and the bows of his nobles.
As a man of wax is blinded, thus Matti'el shall be blinded.
[As] this calf is cut up, thus Matti'el and his nobles shall be cut up."
This loyalty oath from the Sefire inscriptions is similar to other loyalty oaths imposed by Assyrian kings on other less powerful monarchs in the Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
throughout the eighth and seventh centuries BCE.
The inscriptions may, under one possible interpretation, record the names of El and Elyon
Elyon
Elyon is an epithet of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible. is usually rendered as English "God Most High"....
, "God, God Most High" possibly providing prima facie evidence for a distinction between the two deities first worshipped by the Jebusites in Jerusalem, and then elsewhere throughout the ancient Levant.
Thought to be reflective of Assyrian or neo-Assyrian culture and similar to other documents dating from the first millennium BCE, scholars such as Joseph Fitzmyer
Joseph Fitzmyer
Rev. Joseph Augustine Fitzmyer, S.J., is a priest of the Society of Jesus and a New Testament scholar.He entered the Maryland Province, made his novitiate in Wernersville, PA, and was ordained on July 30, 1938. His academic studies were done at Loyola University of Chicago; Facultes St-Albert de...
have perceived Canaan
Canaan
Canaan is a historical region roughly corresponding to modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and the western parts of Jordan...
ite influences in the text, while Dennis McCarthy has noted similarities to second millennium BCE treaties imposed by Hittite
Hittites
The Hittites were a Bronze Age people of Anatolia.They established a kingdom centered at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia c. the 18th century BC. The Hittite empire reached its height c...
kings on Syrian vassals.