PharmacyPharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of medication....
in ChinaChina is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational entity extending over a large area in East Asia....
involves the activities engaged in the preparation, standardization and dispensing of
drugA drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage.In pharmacology, a...
s, and its scope includes the cultivation of
plantPlants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extant species of plants, defined as seed plants,...
s that are used as drugs, the
synthesisIn chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations usually involving one or more reactions...
of chemical compounds of medicinal value, and the analysis of medicinal agents.
PharmacistPharmacists are health professionals who practice the science of pharmacy. In their traditional role, pharmacists typically take a request for medicines from a prescribing health care provider in the form of a medical prescription, evaluate the appropriateness of the prescription, dispense the...
s in China are responsible for the preparation of the
dosage formA dosage form is the physical form of a dose of a chemical compound used as a drug or medication intended for administration or consumption...
s of drugs, such as tablets, capsules, and sterile solutions for injection. They compound physicians', dentists', and veterinarians'
prescriptionPrescription may refer to:Health care*Prescription drug, a drug available only by a medical prescription*Medical prescription, a plan of care written by a physician or other health care professional...
s for drugs.
PharmacologicalPharmacology is the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that alter normal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals...
activities are also closely related to pharmacy in China.
There are two main streams of pharmaceutical practice in
ChinaChina is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational entity extending over a large area in East Asia....
,
traditional Chinese medicineTraditional Chinese Medicine, also known as TCM , includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Although well accepted in the mainstream of medical care throughout East Asia, it is considered an alternative medical system in much of the western world.TCM practices include...
(TCM) and modern
pharmacyPharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of medication....
.
HospitalA hospital pharmacy is concerned with pharmacy service to all types of hospital and differs considerably from a community pharmacy.Some pharmacists in hospital pharmacies may have more complex clinical medication management issues whereas pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex...
and
communityA community pharmacy is one which is not owned by a publicly traded company as defined section 2 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 ....
pharmacies are responsible for the dispensing of medicinals used for both streams of pharmaceutical practice.
Around fifty colleges of pharmacy offer pharmacy education, half of which provide a Western medicine approach and the other half traditional Chinese medicine. Both types of colleges offer a four-year curriculum with options for
specializationSpecialisation, also spelt specialization, is an important way to generate propositional knowledge, by applying general knowledge, such as the theory of gravity, to specific instances, such as "when I release this apple, it will fall to the floor"...
. Graduate study is also available. Most of the graduates work in hospital pharmacies. Hospital pharmacies participate in the bulk manufacture of drugs and
parenteralParenteral is a route of administration that involves piercing the skin or mucous membrane. Parenteral nutrition refers to providing nutrition via the veins.-Etymology:...
fluids. A bulk dispensing system is used by some hospitals; individual patient doses are dispensed in others.
Recently,
clinical pharmacyClinical pharmacy is the branch of Pharmacy where pharmacists provide patient care that optimizes the use of medication and promotes health, wellness and disease prevention. Clinical pharmacists care for patients in all health care settings but the clinical pharmacy movement initially began inside...
services in China have been developed and training courses begun. Curricula with specialization in clinical pharmacy have also been established by colleges of pharmacy.
It is anticipated that through increased awareness of the potential contribution of
pharmacistPharmacists are health professionals who practice the science of pharmacy. In their traditional role, pharmacists typically take a request for medicines from a prescribing health care provider in the form of a medical prescription, evaluate the appropriateness of the prescription, dispense the...
s in China's health-care system, more opportunities for educating pharmacists would be made available to meet the vast need of the country. Development of clinical pharmacy services have also been expected to improve the quality of care provided.
Ancient history
The beginnings of pharmacy in China are ancient (see
Chinese alchemyChinese alchemy is a part of the larger tradition of Taoism , which centers on the tradition of body-spirit cultivation that developed through the Chinese understandings of medicine and the body. These Chinese traditions were developed into a system of energy practices...
). According to legend,
ShennongShennong , also known as the Yan Emperor or the Emperor of the Five Grains , is a ruler of China and culture hero who lived some 5,000 years ago, and taught ancient China the practices of agriculture. Appropriately, his name means "the Divine Farmer"...
(about 2000 BCE) who sought out and investigated the medicinal value of several hundred herbs. He reputed to have tested many of them on himself, and to have written the first Pen T-Sao, or native herbal, recording 365 drugs. He is said to have tasted hundreds of
herbA herb is a plant that is valued for flavor, scent, or other qualities. Herbs are used in cooking, as medicines, and for spiritual purposes....
s to test their medical value.
The most well-known work attributed to Shennong is the
The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic. This work is considered to be the earliest Chinese
pharmacopoeiaPharmacopoeia , in its modern technical sense, is a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a government or a medical or pharmaceutical society .In a broader sense is a reference work for...
. It includes 365 medicines derived from minerals, plants, and animals. Shennong is credited with identifying hundreds of medical (and poisonous)
herbA herb is a plant that is valued for flavor, scent, or other qualities. Herbs are used in cooking, as medicines, and for spiritual purposes....
s by personally testing their properties, which was crucial to the development of
Traditional Chinese medicineTraditional Chinese Medicine, also known as TCM , includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Although well accepted in the mainstream of medical care throughout East Asia, it is considered an alternative medical system in much of the western world.TCM practices include...
.
Still worshiped by native Chinese drug guilds as their patron god, Shennong conceivably examined many herbs, barks, and roots brought in from the fields, swamps, and woods that are still recognized in Pharmacy today. The "
Pa KuaThe Ba gua are eight diagrams used in Taoist cosmology to represent a range of interrelated concepts. Each consists of three lines, each either "broken" or "unbroken," representing a yin line or a yang line, respectively. Due to their tripartite structure, they are often referred to as...
" is a mathematical design symbolizing creation and life. Medicinal plants include
podophyllumPodophyllum is a genus of six species of herbaceous perennial plants in the family Berberidaceae, native to eastern Asia and eastern North America...
,
rhubarbRhubarb is a group of plants that belong to the genus Rheum in the family Polygonaceae. They are herbaceous perennial plants growing from short, thick rhizomes. They have large leaves that are somewhat triangular shaped with long fleshy petioles. They have small flowers grouped in large compound...
,
ginsengGinseng is any one of eleven distinct species of slow-growing perennial plants with fleshy roots, in the Panax genus, in the family Araliaceae. It grows in the Northern Hemisphere in eastern Asia , typically in cooler climates; Panax vietnamensis, discovered in Vietnam, is the southernmost ginseng...
, stramonium, cinnamon bark, and,
ma huang, or
EphedraEphedra, from the plant Ephedra sinica, has been used as a herbal remedy in traditional Chinese medicine for 5,000 years for the treatment of asthma and hay fever, as well as for the common cold. Known in Chinese as ma huang , ephedra is a stimulant which constricts blood vessels and increases...
.
Separation of prescribing from dispensing
Unlike the prevailing practice in other, particularly Western countries, the duties of the pharmacist and
physicianA physician — also known as medical practitioner, doctor of medicine, medical doctor, or simply doctor — practices the ancient profession of medicine, which is concerned with maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease or injury...
are not entirely separated. Chinese doctors are allowed to dispense drugs themselves and the practice of pharmacy is sometimes integrated with that of the physician, particularly in traditional Chinese medicine. The idea of separating the two professions has been debated as the trend for specialization has increased in the health sciences. Other countries such as South Korea, Japan and Taiwan have successfully separated the jurisidications to legally separate the practice of prescribing from the practice of dispensing. That legislation has also specified that only pharmacists may supply scheduled pharmaceuticals to the public, and that pharmacists cannot form business partnerships with physicians or give them "kickback" payments. Possible reform for this area is being considered by the Chinese regulatory authorities.
Pharmacist role
Since the economic reform period of the 1980s, the development of the Chinese pharmaceutical industry has led to the introduction of new and effective drug substances. It also changed the role of the pharmacist. The scope for extemporaneous compounding of medicines was much diminished and with it the need for the manipulative skills that were previously applied by the pharmacist to the preparation of bougies, cachets, pills, plasters, and liquids. Pharmacists continue, however, to fulfill the prescriber's intentions by providing advice and information; by formulating, storing, and providing correct
dosage formA dosage form is the physical form of a dose of a chemical compound used as a drug or medication intended for administration or consumption...
s; and by assuring the
efficacyEfficacy is the capacity to produce an effect. It is used to mean different specific things in different fields.- Healthcare :In a healthcare context, efficacy indicates the capacity for beneficial change of a given intervention Efficacy is the capacity to produce an effect. It is used to mean...
and quality of the dispensed or supplied medicinal product.
In the future, pharmacists are expected to become more integral within the health care system. Rather than only dispensing medication and other routine duties, pharmacists are to be involved more in patient care with their particular knowledge and skills.
Hospital pharmacy
Since 1949,
health careHealth care , is the treatment and management of illness, and the preservation of health through services offered by the medical, dental, complementary and alternative medicine, pharmaceutical, clinical laboratory sciences , nursing, and allied health professions...
in China has improved. The number of
hospitalA hospital is an institution for health care providing patient treatment by specialized staff and equipment, and often but not always providing for longer-term patient stays....
s has increased. While medicines previously were scarce, China now produces approximately 75 percent of the drugs it needs. China has a long history of traditional medicine; although there are attempts to integrate the concepts of traditional and Western medicine, the practices are still segregated. All hospital pharmacies in China have the responsibilities to guarantee the safe and effective use of drugs within the hospital and to do research. Even though Chinese factories manufacture many pharmaceutical products, the hospital pharmacy must manufacture many more.
Hospitals have established Agreed Prescription programs, whereby drugs are manufactured in large batches, repackaged, and distributed to other hospital pharmacies in the area if needed. Quality is assessed chemically and by modern techniques when equipment is available. Most large hospitals now have automated facilities to manufacture sterile solutions. Each hospital has a medical supply committee that supervises the procurement of medical supplies and the reasonable use of drugs.
A government resolution mandates that every hospital pharmacy do
researchResearch can be defined to be search for knowledge or any systematic investigation to establish facts. The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of...
. A primary focus of their research is the integration of traditional and Western medicine. Concepts of traditional and Western medicine are taught in separate pharmacy schools. Most pharmacy undergraduate programs are four years, but some schools recently changed to five years. Challenges for hospital pharmacists in China have been to develop the theoretical and technological knowledge of pharmacy, and to expand the scientific and technical information system that is necessary to do research.
Education
The course of instruction leading to a
bachelor of scienceA Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years ....
in pharmacy (BPharm) extends at least four years. The first and frequently the second year of training, embracing general education subjects, are often provided by a school of arts and sciences. Many institutions also offer graduate courses in pharmacy and cognate sciences leading to the degrees of
master of scienceA Master of Science is a postgraduate academic master's degree awarded by universities in a large number of countries...
and
doctor of philosophyDoctor of Philosophy, abbreviated PhD , for the Latin , meaning "teacher of philosophy", or alternatively, DPhil, for the equivalent , is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities...
in
pharmacyPharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of medication....
,
pharmacologyPharmacology is the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that alter normal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals...
, or related disciplines. These advanced courses are intended especially for those who are preparing for careers in research, manufacturing, or teaching in the field of pharmacy.
Since the treatment with drugs encompasses a wide field of knowledge in the biological and physical sciences, an understanding of these sciences is included for pharmaceutical training. The basic four-year curriculum in the colleges of pharmacy, for example, embraces
physicsPhysics is a natural science; it is the study of matter and its motion through spacetime and all that derives from these, such as energy and force...
,
chemistryChemistry is the science concerned with the composition, behavior, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions...
,
biologyBiology is the natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy...
, bacteriology,
physiologyPhysiology is the science of the functioning of living systems. It is a subcategory of biology...
,
pharmacologyPharmacology is the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that alter normal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals...
, and many other specialized courses. As the pharmacist is engaged in a
businessA business is a legally recognized organization designed to provide goods and/or services to consumers. Businesses are predominant in capitalist economies, most being privately owned and formed to earn profit that will increase the wealth of its owners and grow the business itself...
as well as a profession, special training is provided in merchandising, accounting, computer techniques, and pharmaceutical jurisprudence.
Subjects:
- Clinical pharmacy
Clinical pharmacy is the branch of Pharmacy where pharmacists provide patient care that optimizes the use of medication and promotes health, wellness and disease prevention. Clinical pharmacists care for patients in all health care settings but the clinical pharmacy movement initially began inside...
- Pharmacy practice
Pharmacy practice is the discipline of pharmacy which involves developing the professional roles of pharmacists.Areas of pharmacy practice include:*Disease-state management...
- Pharmaceutical care
Pharmaceutical care is the responsible provision of drug therapy for the purpose of achieving definite outcomes that improve a patient's quality of life...
- Pharmacy administrative sciences
- Pharmacotherapy
Pharmacotherapy is that area of pharmacy practice that is responsible for ensuring the safe, appropriate, and economical use of drugs in patient care. A speciailist in pharmacotherapy has responsibility for direct patient care, often functions as a member of a multidisciplinary team and is...
- Pharmacoeconomics
Pharmacoeconomics refers to the scientific discipline that compares the value of one pharmaceutical drug or drug therapy to another. It is a sub-discipline of Health economics. A pharmacoeconomic study evaluates the cost and effects of a pharmaceutical product...
- Pharmacogenetics
The terms pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics tend to be used interchangeably, and a precise, consensus definition of either remains elusive. Pharmacogenetics is generally regarded as the study or clinical testing of genetic variation that gives rise to differing response to drugs, while...
- Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenomics is the branch of pharmacology which deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity...
- Pharmacoepidemiology
Pharmacoepidemiology is the study of the use and effects of drugs in large groups of people.To accomplish this study, pharmacoepidemiology borrows from both pharmacology and epidemiology. Thus, pharmacoepidemiology can be called a bridge science spanning both pharmacology and epidemiology...
Reforms made to provide an individualized, state-of-the-art learning environment that facilitates the development of students' knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors needed by the pharmacy profession and society at-large, so they provide high quality pharmaceutical care:
- critical-thinking,
- problem-solving,
- communication skills,
- technology skills
- patient-care skills.
- a pharmacy-focused basic science curriculum that is integrated with patient assessment, a problem-based learning case study sequence, an outcome-oriented assessment plan, and structured experiential clerkships in each year of the program.
Competency based education with an emphasis on patient-oriented practice and accountability are the current and future trends in pharmacy education. Reforms have been made to promote state-of the-art pharmaceutical sciences in curricula when at the same time there is a shift from product-oriented to patient-oriented pharmacy education and practice. There has seen a radical change in curriculum and organisational structure focussing on problem-oriented and student centred educational methods, in order to optimally prepare future practitioners and scientists.
Development of pharmaceutical education
Higher pharmaceutical education in China has been developing rapidly. Since 1978, a series of reforms have been carried out in teaching management and training model. Many changes have been made in the fields of pharmaceutical education, such as characteristic higher education of traditional Chinese pharmacy, the education of newly emerging clinical pharmacy, the trend of combination of traditional Chinese pharmacy with Western pharmacy, the reform of four year university education and postgraduate education.
Higher education of traditional Chinese pharmacy
Traditional Chinese pharmacy has had a history of thousands of years. The scientific therapeutic effects of traditional Chinese materia medica have attracted great attention both at home and abroad. In the recent 20-30 years there has appeared a tendency to "return to nature" owing to the
toxicToxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ , such as the liver...
and
side effectsIn medicine, an adverse effect is a harmful and undesired effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as surgery. An adverse effect may be termed a "side effect", when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect, and may result from an unsuitable or incorrect dosage or...
of chemical medicines and the drug-induced diseases caused by them. On the other hand, the traditional Chinese medicine and pharmacy have attracted more attention because of the difficulty in searching for and synthesizing new compounds. Only by
modernizationModernization is a concept used in sociology and politics. It is the view that a standard, teleological evolutionary pattern, as described in the social evolutionism theories, exists as a template for all nations and peoples...
of traditional Chinese materia medica can its use become global. The modernization of traditional Chinese materia medica means studying the theories and the basic content of traditional Chinese pharmacy applying the knowledge of modern science and technology. The information on Chinese materia medica should be expressed in modern scientific indexes, terms, and include standardized methods of quality measurement and modernized forms of medicines. The task of higher education of traditional Chinese pharmacy is to train high-level personnel to fulfill the modernization of traditional Chinese pharmacy.
There are five specialties of traditional Chinese pharmacy and 38 programs in China. These specialties have training targets, core courses and job orientations. All specialties have two common characteristics in their core courses: (i) the basic theories of traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Chinese pharmacy and preparations of traditional Chinese materia medica; and (ii) attention to teaching basic knowledge of modern science that includes advanced mathematics, computer application, mathematical
statisticsStatistics is a branch of mathematics concerned with collecting and interpreting data. According to other definitions, it is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data. Statisticians improve the quality of data with the...
,
physicsPhysics is a natural science; it is the study of matter and its motion through spacetime and all that derives from these, such as energy and force...
,
physical chemistryPhysical chemistry is the explanation of macroscopic, microscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical concepts; sometimes using the principles, practices and concepts of physics like thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and...
and
analytical chemistryAnalytical chemistry is the study of the chemical composition of natural and artificial materials. Properties studied in analytical chemistry include geometric features such as molecular morphologies and distributions of species, as well as features such as composition and species identity...
.
Education of emerging Clinical Pharmacy
With the development of medicine and pharmacy more domestic and foreign medicines have come into the China's medical market. Among them are a number of new drugs and their new drug forms. These have become a burden for the clinical physicians to grasp the knowledge of their application and study the rational clinical use and safety for their
therapeutic effectA therapeutic effect is a consequence of a medical treatment of any kind, the results of which are judged to be desirable and beneficial. This is true whether the result was expected, unexpected, or even an unintended consequence of the treatment...
s. They have to depend on
pharmacistPharmacists are health professionals who practice the science of pharmacy. In their traditional role, pharmacists typically take a request for medicines from a prescribing health care provider in the form of a medical prescription, evaluate the appropriateness of the prescription, dispense the...
s to solve these problems. This is why the education of clinical pharmacy had begun to attract more attention. In 1987 the National Educational Committee approved the start of the specialty of
clinical pharmacyClinical pharmacy is the branch of Pharmacy where pharmacists provide patient care that optimizes the use of medication and promotes health, wellness and disease prevention. Clinical pharmacists care for patients in all health care settings but the clinical pharmacy movement initially began inside...
. Since the beginning four classes of the students were enrolled. They were five-year system students. The clinical pharmacists educated in China are engaged in the clinical application of drugs and monitoring their therapeutic effects. The first class of these students in the clinical pharmacy specialty graduated in 1994.
Other pharmaceutical universities and colleges (departments) are also taking steps to establish a specialty of clinical pharmacy, adding correspondence courses, beginning postgraduate classes in clinical pharmacy, and opening short courses for advanced study to help pharmacists working in hospitals who have been engaged in clinical application of drugs for many years. This has promoted the development of clinical pharmacy in China.
Combination of traditional and modern pharmacy
Two kinds of pharmacy have existed in China since Western medicine and pharmacy spread into China more than one hundred years ago: (i)
traditional Chinese pharmacyTraditional Chinese Medicine, also known as TCM , includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Although well accepted in the mainstream of medical care throughout East Asia, it is considered an alternative medical system in much of the western world.TCM practices include...
, and (ii)
Western pharmacyPharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of medication....
. They are two different pharmaceutical systems with different theories and approach to research. The former is based on a comprehensive study which emphasizes entirety, mobility and vagueness, while the latter is based on analytical study which emphasizes microconception, stability and accuracy. Both systems have advantages and both have limitations. It has been thought in China that if these two systems are combined, a new system will be formed towards the improvement of the life science of man.
Since the foundation of the
People's Republic of ChinaThe People's Republic of China , commonly known as China, is the largest country in East Asia and the most populous in the world with over 1.3 billion people, approximately one-fifth of the world's population...
considerable work has been done by grouping and summarizing previous experiences. The progress made in this field includes:
1. The research of
active ingredientAn active ingredient , is the substance in a drug or a pesticide that is pesticidal or pharmaceutically active. Terms in similar use include: active pharmaceutical ingredient and bulk active in medicine, or in pesticide formulations active substance may be used. Some medications and pesticide...
s of traditional Chinese
medicinal herbsHerbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. Herbalism is also known as botanical medicine, medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, and phytotherapy...
.
The
chemical structureA chemical structure includes molecular geometry, electronic structure and crystal structure of a chemical compound. Molecular geometry refers to the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule and the chemical bonds that hold the atoms together...
s of the active ingredients of hundreds of herbs have been made clear. Now some of the active ingredients can be synthesized or modified in chemical structure. Not only have new drugs been researched but also the therapeutic mechanism of traditional Chinese medicinal herbs have been clarified, which promotes the combination of traditional Chinese pharmacy with Western pharmacy.
2. The research of the compound preparations of traditional Chinese medicinal herbs.
The compound preparations of traditional Chinese medicinal herbs are the most popular recipes used by doctors of traditional Chinese medicine. There are 12,000 recipes in
Ben Cao Gangmu (the "Compendium of Materia Medica"). The composition of these recipes has a characteristic regularity and makes the ingredients in every recipe effective as a whole. This corresponds not only to
symptomA symptom is a departure from normal function or feeling which is noticed by a patient, indicating the presence of disease or abnormality...
s but also the
syndromeIn medicine and psychology, the term syndrome refers to the association of several clinically recognizable features, signs , symptoms , phenomena or characteristics that often occur together, so that the presence of one feature alerts the physician to the presence of the others...
s of the whole body. The modern study of the compound preparations of traditional Chinese materia medica is an important content of the modernization of traditional Chinese medicine and one of the prerequisites of the combination of traditional Chinese pharmacy with Western pharmacy. The selection of the ingredients and forms of preparations, production procedures (including the form modification),
quality controlIn engineering and manufacturing, quality control and quality engineering are used in developing systems to ensure products or services are designed and produced to meet or exceed customer requirements....
, clinical and pharmacological experiments have been studied systematically. A number of new drugs and their new forms and giving scientific explanation to the regularity in recipe composition have been developed. Some diseases, whose scientific indexes have been known in their treatment by Western medicine, have been treated and reportedly cured by using traditional Chinese medicine. The therapeutic effects of the compound preparations of some traditional Chinese materia medica can be compared clinically with those of Western medicines and are expressed in modern scientific indexes. This provides the material foundation of the compound preparations of traditional Chinese materia medica and the modernization of the expression of their therapeutic activities.
There have been continuing efforts to combine traditional Chinese pharmacy with Western pharmacy. In order to train the personnel who are able to engage in the combination of traditional Chinese pharmacy and Western pharmacy, educational opportunities have been developed to teach and research the traditional Chinese pharmacy and Western pharmacy in combination. The students are trained to have a foundation and experimental skills in both traditional Chinese pharmacy and Western pharmacy (including the knowledge and skills of clinical medicine). There are two approaches for this training: (i) a six-year system of the specialty of combining traditional Chinese pharmacy and Western pharmacy granting Master's Degree; and (ii) a two-year system of the postbaccalaureate degree class offering Bachelor's Degree pharmaceutical graduates another Bachelor's Degree in traditional Chinese pharmacy.
4-year undergraduate education
During the first years of the foundation of the People's Republic of China, the courses and the management model of the semester system were introduced from the
Soviet UnionThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
. This met the needs of the planned economy for China at that time. This model emphasized the dependence of administrative measures planned by the State, e.g., the enrollment and assignment of students, the arrangement of courses. Such a highly centralized and unified way of job could not stimulate the vigor and vitality of universities in running schools. Since 1978 there have been rapid and profound changes in China which have produced differences between the previous educational model and the pace of the reform of the economic system. These are as follows:
Because of the launching of the socialist market economy the students with narrow specific knowledge trained by the semester system could not meet the demands of the personnel with broad specific knowledge needed by the market economy. Further, the number of the university students in China has been insufficient to meet the pharmacy
manpowerManpower may refer to:Organizations:*Manpower Inc., an international employment agency, headquartered in the United States*Manpower Incorporated, a criminal enterprise in the Honor Harrington science fiction series...
needs. Some areas and units refuse to employ graduates assigned by the Chinese government because the specialties of these graduates do not meet their specific requirements. The employing units need the students who are expert in their specialty and have good adaptability to various jobs. Students are encouraged to elect more optional courses and to learn what is needed by the employer market on their own initiative.
The system of courses has become more comprehensive. The world, including that of pharmacy, is faced with the great challenge of highly-developed and -complex technology. As a result, complex cross-disciplinary sciences have appeared. The number of hours, however, is limited. Therefore, new required subjects of semester system length have been added to the curriculum making it less possible to increase the elective subjects with new content.
The credit system has solved some of the problems in the semester system. The foundation has been emphasized and specialty de-emphasized, as follows:
1. Students who major in different fields of pharmacy have taken common basic courses such as mathematics, chemistry, biology and computer sciences. The
lecturethumb|A lecture on [[linear algebra]] at the [[Helsinki University of Technology]]A lecture is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach people about a particular subject, for example by a university or college teacher. Lectures are used to convey critical information, history,...
hours and requirements of these courses have been arranged in a unified way. This has given a broad and solid foundation of basic theories from these courses to all pharmacy students. The curricula based on the credit system is stipulated to include less than 70 percent of required courses and increase the proportion of optional courses which account for 20-30 percent of all the courses offered. This gives the students the freedom to choose what interests them and what they need in their future jobs.
2. According to the different programs the specific subjects were divided into modules. For example, students who learn analysis and the
assayAn assay is a procedure in molecular biology for testing and/or measuring the activity of a drug or biochemical in an organism or organic sample. A quantitative assay may also measure the amount of a substance in a sample. Bioassays and immunoassays are among the many varieties of specialized...
of drugs may elect spectroanalysis, pharmaceutical analysis and other courses. The students who learn
hospital pharmacyA hospital pharmacy is concerned with pharmacy service to all types of hospital and differs considerably from a community pharmacy.Some pharmacists in hospital pharmacies may have more complex clinical medication management issues whereas pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex...
may elect hospital pharmaceutical preparations,
clinical pharmacologyClinical pharmacology is the science of drugs and their clinical use. It is underpinned by the basic science of pharmacology, with added focus on the application of pharmacological principles and methods in the real world...
and other related topics. Students can choose the subjects in the modules according to the requirements of the country's construction. the needs of social development and their individual interest. The bright students have been allowed to choose more subjects and finish the study earlier than those who are academically challenged or those who take part-time study.
By carrying out the credit system the Chinese higher pharmaceutical education have trained more students who are expert in their specialty and have multiple skills by the combination of liberal and professional education.
Postgraduate education
In 1995 there were 113 MSc programs and 48 PhD programs. The pharmaceutical specialties had 136 professors who served as advisors of doctoral candidates. The number of the students enrolled in 1995 to pursue the Master Degree increased by 70 percent and the students pursuing the PhD were 277.5 percent more than in 1990. In order to face the economic development in China, some measures have been taken to improve the postgraduate education. For example, the employers, such as hospitals, factories, research institutions, companies and others who need professional personnel can designate the employees with practical experience to be trained in universities. These employees will return to their employment after graduation. The professors in the universities combine with the researchers to instruct these students. The subject of their thesis is usually related to their job. The employers provide laboratories and facilities as well as some of the tuition. This is an approach to train personnel, which benefits universities, employers and students.
In order to promote scientific research and the training of highly qualified researchers, mobile research stations have been approved by the government. Thus far in China, there have been six such stations where postdoctoral students are carrying on their research in five pharmaceutical specialties. These stations play an important role in stimulating academic exchange, training high-level professional personnel and attracting the overseas-trained students to come back.
Although the postgraduate education of pharmaceutical sciences has developed quickly, the number of the postgraduates is still limited. The proportion of postgraduates to undergraduates is 0.05:1. Many fields, such as pharmaceutical research, pharmaceutical industry and commerce, inspection and clinical application of drugs, pharmaceutical education and management, need graduates with advanced degrees, but these specialties have produced relatively few graduates for several years.
New training approaches have been tried, such as establishing a six-year-system for the higher pharmaceutical education, enrolling middle-school graduates and granting them a Master-Degree after graduation. The characteristics of this system are as follows: (i) it shortens the length of study period (less than one year); (ii) continuous study avoids the repetition of some courses, strengthens the foundation and broadens the knowledge range; (iii) this basic training approach is course/subject oriented, so that the advantages of the skills of teachers and the academic departments are fully taken; and (iv) in the first 4.5-5 years the students finish the courses of under-/post-grad study, then write their thesis under the direction of advisors in the following 1-1.5 years.
Pharmacy schools & programs
The pharmacy schools in China are experiencing the dramatic changes, together with the booming economy and continuous education reform. In the last ten years, one major structural change in the higher educational system was the merger of several medical and pharmacy schools with several major universities. The environment for these pharmacy schools have been changing dramatically from independent or medical university settings into being affiliated to comprehensive and multidisciplinary Universities. It presented the similar situation as those happened in the US during last century, when some state universities expanded into pharmacy education or merged with independent pharmacy schools.
There are 51 pharmaceutical institutions of higher learning (including universities and colleges) in China according to the statistics made by the end of 1995. Within these 51 institutions there are 95 programs which have enrolled 3,968 state-planned undergraduate students. In 1995 more students were enrolled in some specialties than in 1990 because of the rapid development of the health and medical economies in China which need more personnel in the fields of pharmacy. The number of the students studying various specialties increased greatly, e.g., pharmaceutical analysis by 64. 5 percent, microbial pharmacy by 122 percent,
pharmacologyPharmacology is the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that alter normal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals...
of traditional Chinese pharmacy by 200 percent, management of medical and pharmaceutical enterprises by 300 percent and
pharmaceuticsPharmaceutics is the discipline of pharmacy that deals with all facets of the process of turning a new chemical entity into a medication able to be safely and effectively used by patients in the community. Pharmaceutics is the science of dosage form design...
of traditional Chinese
materia medicaMateria medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing . In Latin, the term literally means "medical material/substance"...
by 64. 2 percent.
List
Beijing:
- Peking University
Peking University , colloquially known in Chinese as Beida , is a major research university located in Beijing, China. It is the first formally established modern research university in and the first national university of China. It was founded as Imperial Capital University in 1898 as a...
, Peking University Health Science CenterPeking University Health Science Campus is a top medical school in China attached to Peking University.- History :Established by the central government of China on October 26, 1912 in the city of Beijing, it was the first of the kind in China to teach western medicine and train medical professionals...
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Capital Medical University (CMU)
Tianjin:
- Tianjin University
Tianjin University is a national university under the direct administration of the Ministry of Education of China. It is the first university in modern Chinese education history. It was part of Peiyang University in 1895...
- Nankai University
Nankai University is a public university in Tianjin, P.R. China. It is among the most famous universities in China and has a great reputation....
- Tianjin Medical University
Tianjin Medical University was founded in 1951; was the first medical institution approved by the State Council of the People's Republic of China. Dr. Hsien-I Chu, a renowned endocrinologist, was the first president of the university. At present, Prof. Dr...
- Tianjin University of Technology
Tianjin University of Technology is a university in Tianjin, China under the municipal government....
- Second Tianjin Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
Shanghai:
- East China University of Science and Technology
East China University of Science and Technology is a state key university of the People's Republic of China, and one which is regarded as the cradle of Chinese chemical engineering.- History :...
- School of Pharmacy
- Fudan University
Fudan University , located in Shanghai, China, is one of the oldest, most prestigious and most selectiveuniversities in the People's Republic of China. Its institutional predecessor was founded in 1905, shortly before the end of China's imperial Qing dynasty. Fudan University is composed of four...
- Shanghai Jiaotong University
- Shanghai Medical University
Shanghai Medical University is a top medical school in China, located in Shanghai municipality. It was merged into Fudan University in 2000 and becomes Fudan University Shanghai Medical College.- History :...
- School of Pharmacy
- Shanghai Second Medical University
- Shanghai Polytechnic University
- Second Military Medical University
The Second Military Medical University is a public university in Shanghai, China that was founded in September 1949 and named in July 1951...
- Department of Pharmacy
Chongqing:
- Chongqing University
Chongqing University is a comprehensive national university in the Shapingba district of Chongqing municipality, China. It is a member of the Project 211 and Project 985 which aims to transform Chinese universities into better research institutions....
- Southwest Agricultural University
Southwest Agricultural University is a public and national key university located in Chongqing, China.It was founded in 1950 and has cultivated thousands of talents in the field of agriculture....
- Chongqing Medical University
Chongqing Medical University or previously referred to as Chongqing University of Medical Sciences , formerly, Chongqing Medical College, was founded in 1956 in Chongqing, China...
Hebei:
- Hebei University
Hebei University is the only Comprehensive University in Hebei which is directly under Hebei provincial government and the Ministry of Education, China. It's located in Baoding, Hebei Province....
- Hebei Medical University
Hebei Medical University is a university in Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China under the provincial government.-External links:*...
- Hebei University of Science and Technology
Hebei University of Science and Technology is one of the key, multi-disciplinary universities in Shijiazhuang, Hebei province. It offers undergraduate degrees in science and engineering courses.- History :...
- North China Coal Medical College
North China Coal Medical University is a university in Hebei, China, founded by a British surgeon and now under provincial governance. At one time it was the only medical university in China. The Coal Ministry is located in this major industrial city, Tangshan, Hebei Province. The university was...
- Hebei North University
Hebei North University is a multi-faculty university in Zhangjiakou, Hebei, China under the provincial government....
- Hebei Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
Henan:
- Zhengzhou University
Zhengzhou University , colloquially known in Chinese as Zhengda is a public university located in Zhengzhou, Henan, China.- History :...
- Henan University
Henan University is a public university in Kaifeng, Henan, China.- History :Henan University is located in Kaifeng, a famous historic city and the capital of 7 dynasties in Chinese history. It was founded in 1912 and was originally named The Preparatory School for Further Study in Europe and America...
- Xinxiang Medical College
- Yellow River Technical College
- Kaifeng Medical Specific School - Department of Pharmacy
Shandong:
- Shandong University
Shandong University is one of the oldest universities in China. It was founded in 1901 as the second national university established in the country, soon after Jingshi University...
- Ocean University of China
The Ocean University of China , especially renowned for its marine sciences and fishery sciences, is one of the key comprehensive universities under the direct jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China...
- Yantai University
Yantai University is a public university in Yantai, Shandong, China.-History:Yantai University was established as a modern comprehensive university along the coast in Yantai, July, 1984, from a generous request by Mr. Zhang Chengxian . Mr. Zhang Chengxian was appointed the first...
- Tai Shan Medical College
- Jining Medical College
- Shandong Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
Shanxi:
- Shanxi University
Shanxi University is a university located in Shanxi Province, China. The University was founded in 1902 and is one of the three earliest established national universities in China...
- Shanxi Medical University
Shanxi Medical University is a university in Shanxi, China under the authority of the provincial government.-External links:*...
- Changzhi School of Medicine
- Shanxi Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
Anhui:
- Anhui Medical University
Anhui Medical University is a key national university in Hefei, Anhui province, China.-History:The university was originally established as the Shanghai Southeastern Medical College in May 29th, 1926. It relocated from Shanghai to Hefei and was renamed Anhui Medical College in 1949...
- Bengbu School of Medicine
- Southern Anhui Medical College
Jiangxi:
- Nanchang University
Nanchang University ， also called or ，is located in Nanchang city the capital of Jiangxi province of P. R. China. Nanchang University had been established in 1940 as Zhongzheng University this is the name of its original predecessor...
- Jiangxi Medical College
- Yichun College
- Jiangxi Science and Technology Teachers College
- Jinggangshan College
- Southern Jiangxi Medical College
Jiangsu:
- Suzhou University
- Jiangsu University
Jiangsu University is a provincial university located in Zhenjiang, Jiangsu province, China.- History :The university is located in Zhenjiang, Jiangsu province, Jiangsu University was established through the combination of Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang Medical College and...
- China Pharmaceutical University
China Pharmaceutical University is a university in Nanjing, China that specializes in the pharmaceutical sciences.- History :China Pharmaceutical University, originally the National Pharmaceutical School founded in 1936, is China’s first independent school of pharmacy and it has been one of the...
(Nanjing' , abbreviated in Chinese as Ning , is the capital of China's Jiangsu Province, and a city with a prominent place in Chinese history and culture...
)
- Nanjing Medical University
Nanjing Medical University is a university located in the city of Nanjing in the Jiangsu Province of China. It was first established in 1934 in Zhenjiang city, but it was relocated to Nanjing in 1957. The university has 2 main campuses, the Wutai and the Jiangning campuses...
- Xuzhou Medical College
Xuzhou Medical College is a national university located in Xuzhou, Jiangsu province, China.- History :The university was established in 1958 as the Jiangsu Provincial Medical School. Initially, it was the Xuzhou branch of the Nanjing Medical College. In 1959, Xinhailian Academy was merged into the...
- Naval Medical Specific School - Department of Pharmacy
Zhejiang:
- Zhejiang University
Zhejiang University , sometimes referred to as Zheda, is a national university in China. Founded in 1897, Zhejiang University is one of China's oldest and most prestigious institutions of higher education....
- Zhejiang University of Technology
Zhejiang University of Technology is a university which is located in the city of Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. It is considered as one of the top industrial universities in mainland China and the second best university in Zhejiang Province after the most comprehensive university - Zhejiang...
- Wenzhou Medical College
Wenzhou Medical College Wenzhou Medical College Wenzhou Medical College (WMC, , designated as a key university in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, is an institution of higher learning under the leadership of Zhejiang Provincial Government.- History :...
- Hangzhou Teachers College
Hangzhou Teachers College , founded in 1978 in Hangzhou, China, is a teacher-education-orientated comprehensive normal university covering teacher training and other fields....
- China Institute of Measurement
- Shaoxing College of Arts and Pharmacy
- Zhejiang Medical University
The Zhejiang Medical University , was a defunct university in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, People's Republic of China...
- Department of Pharmacy
Hubei:
- Huazhong University of Science and Technology
The Huazhong University of Science and Technology is a public, coeducational research university located in Wuhan, Hubei province, China. As a national key university, HUST is directly affiliated to the Ministry of Education of China. It is considered to be one of the top 10 universities in China...
- Wuhan University
Wuhan University is a university in China. It is a key university directly under the administration of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. It is regarded as one of the best and most selective universities in China...
- College of Pharmacy
- Wuhan University of Science and Technology
Wuhan University of Science and Technology is a public, comprehensive, research university located in the city of Wuhan, the capital of Hubei province,China...
- Zhongnan University of Nationalities
- Hebei Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
- Xianning College
- Yunyang School of Medicine
- Tongji Medical University - School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Hunan:
- Central South University
Central South University is located in Changsha, a historic and cultural city in Hunan province, central south of the People's Republic of China...
- Xiangtan University
Xiangtan University, or XTU , is a university located in Xiangtan, Hunan. It was founded in 1958 and is organized into 22 Schools and Departments....
- Hunan Agricultural University
Hunan Agricultural University, or HUNAU , is a key provincial university of Hunan located in the Furong District of Changsha, with a campus of 2.27 square kilometers....
- South China University
- Central South Forestry University
- Hunan Medical Specific School - Department of Pharmacy
Guangdong:
- Sun Yat-sen University
Sun Yat-sen University or Zhongshan University is a prominent university in the southern part of China, located mainly in Guangzhou. The university is named after Dr...
- Jinan University
Jinan University is a leading research and comprehensive university based in Guangzhou, Guangdong province, China. It is one of the oldest universities established on mainland China tracing back to the Qing Empire...
- Guangdong Medical College
Guangdong Medical College is a medical school in Guangdong province, China.-History:Guangdong Medical College, the former Zhanjiang Branch of the Sun Yatsen Medical College, was established on May 23, 1958 . In February 1964, the college was renamed Zhanjiang Medical College...
- Guangzhou Medical College
- Guangdong College of Pharmacy - Department of Pharmacy
- Jiaying College
Guangxi:
- Guangxi Medical University
Guangxi Medical University is located in Nanning, China. It is one of the oldest medical education institutes in China. Established in 1934, the university is one of early universities in China which accepts international students into its English-language medical education program, which is...
- Guilin Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
Yunnan:
- Kunming Medical College
- Dali College
- Yuxi Teachers College
Guizhou:
- Guiyang Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
Sichuan:
- Sichuan University
Sichuan University is one of the oldest and most prestigious universities in China, located in the city of Chengdu the capital of the Sichuan province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the national key universities directly under the Ministry of Education...
- Sichuan Agricultural University
Sichuan Agricultural University is a university located in Ya'an city, Sichuan Province, China and part of the “Project 211”, specialized in biotechnology and agricultural sciences, and as well as offering degrees in physical science, engineering, economics, management, veterinary medicine,...
- Luzhou Medical College
- North Sichuan Medical College
North Sichuan Medical College , is a provincial medical school located in Nanchong city, Sichuan Province, the People's Republic of China.-History:Founded in 1951 as North Sichuan School of Medicine , the school...
- West China Medical University - School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Shaanxi:
- Xi'an Jiaotong University
Xi'an Jiaotong University , also known as Xi'an Chiao Tung University, is a Chinese university located in Xi'an, Shaanxi province, China...
- Xian Medical University - School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Qinghai:
- Qinghai University
Qinghai University is a university located in Xining city, the capital of Qinghai province, China. Established in 1958, the university awards bachelor's degrees in the areas of economics and management, agriculture and stockbreeding, science and technology, engineering, veterinary sciences, adult...
- Qinghai Institute for Nationalities
Ningxia:
Heilongjiang:
- Harbin Medical University
Harbin Medical University is a public university located in Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.It was established in 1926 as Harbin Medical College. It was renamed to University in 1958.-External links:http://www.hrbmu.edu.cn/english/index.htm...
- Northeast Agricultural University
The Northeast Agricultural University was established in 1948 in Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PRC. It was first called Northeast Agricultural College and in 1994 it was renamed NEAU. Now The NEAU is one of the key universities in Heilongjiang Province and one of the 211-Project universities in...
- Jiamusi University
Jiamusi University is a multi-disciplinary university situated in the city of Jiamusi, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China.Jiamusi University was established in 1947.-External links:*...
- Harbin University of Commerce
- Mudanjiang Medical College
- Qiqihar Medical School
- Jiamusi Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
Jilin:
- Changchun Institute of Oriental career
- Jilin University
Jilin University is a leading national university under the direct jurisdiction of China's Ministry of Education.-History:Founded in 1946 as the Northeast College of Administration in Harbin, Heilongjiang, Jilin University merged with many Universities and colleges and changed its name many times...
- University of North
- Yanbian University
Yanbian University is a provincial public university of the People's Republic of China, located at Yanji, Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin Province.-History:...
- Yanbian Medical College (Yanji
Yanji is the capital city of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, within Jilin province of northeastern China. Its population is approximately 398,900...
) - Department of Pharmacy
Liaoning:
- China Medical University
There are two institutions called China Medical University.* China Medical University in Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China* China Medical University , Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China...
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University
Shenyang Pharmaceutical University is a university in Shenyang, Liaoning, China. It is the first and one of the most professional research institute in pharmaceutical sciences in China....
- Dalian Medical University
Dalian Medical University is a university in Dalian, Liaoning, China under the provincial government. It was founded in 1947 in the southern part of Dalian city, China by Mao Ze Dong.....
- Jinzhou School of Medicine
- Shenyang College of Pharmacy
Xinjiang:
- Shihezi University
Shihezi University is a university in Shihezi, Xinjiang, founded in April 1996 under the integration of some former institutional colleges by the Ministry of Education and the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps. It is a national key university...
- Xinjiang Agricultural University
Xinjiang Agricultural University is a university in Ürümqi, in Xinjiang, China.Located at 42 Nanchang Road it was founded in 1952 .Xinjiang Agricultural University is ranked at 274th in China having an allround score of 19.00....
- Xinjiang Medical University
Xinjiang Medical University is a university in Ürümqi the capital of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. It was ratified by the National Ministry of Education in 1998 and entitled by Jiang Zemin...
- Shihezi Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
- Xinjiang Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
Inner Mongolia:
- Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology
Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology is a university in Inner Mongolia, China under the authority of the Autonomous Region government....
- Inner Mongolia Medical College
Inner Mongolia Medical College is a university in Inner Mongolia, China under the authority of the Autonomous Region government. It is located in Hohhot, the capital city of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Its website is located at www.imu.edu.cn....
- Department of Pharmacy
Fujian:
- Putian Institute
- Xiamen University
Xiamen University , colloquially known as Xia Da , located in Xiamen, Fujian Province, is the first university in China founded by overseas Chinese. Before 1949, it was named as : University of Amoy...
- Fujian Medical University
Fujian Medical University is a university located in Fuzhou, Fujian, China. Fujian Medical University was founded 1937, whose precursor was Fujian provincial Medical Vocational school. The name of the school was changed to Fujian Provincial Medical college in 1939 and was called Fujian Medical...
Gansu:
- Lanzhou University
Lanzhou University, founded in 1909, is a university located in Lanzhou, Gansu Province, China. It provides programs for undergraduate, graduate students on four campuses--three in Lanzhou city centre and one in Yuzhong , which is about 30 miles away from the main campus. Total enrollment is...
- Lanzhou Medical College - Department of Pharmacy
Hong Kong & Macau:
- Chinese University of Hong Kong
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, commonly referred to as CUHK, is the second oldest university in Hong Kong; it is campus-based and also the only collegiate university in the territory...
- School of Pharmacy http://www.pharmacy.cuhk.edu.hk/
- Hong Kong Baptist University
Hong Kong Baptist University is a publicly-funded tertiary institution with a Christian education heritage. Founded in 1956 by the Baptist Convention of Hong Kong with the support of American Baptists, HKBU is the second-oldest institution of higher learning in Hong Kong...
- Macao Polytechnic Institute - School of Health Sciences http://www.ipm.edu.mo/ess/index.html (pharmacy technician training)
TCMTraditional Chinese Medicine, also known as TCM , includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Although well accepted in the mainstream of medical care throughout East Asia, it is considered an alternative medical system in much of the western world.TCM practices include...
colleges
- Anhui Chinese Medicine College
- Beijing College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Changchun University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Chengdu College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Guangxi College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Guangzhou College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Guiyang College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Heilongjiang College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Heilongjiang Commerce College
- Henan College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Hubei College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Hunan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Jiangxi Chinese Medicine College
- Jiangxi College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Liaoning College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Shandong College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Shanghai College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Shanxi College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Yunnan College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Zhejiang College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Licensing and regulation
To practice pharmacy in China in which a license is required, an applicant must be qualified by graduation from a recognized college of pharmacy, meet specific requirements for experience, and pass an examination conducted by the
Chinese Pharmaceutical AssociationThe Chinese Pharmaceutical Association is the regulatory and professional body for pharmacists and pharmaceutical scientists in China. It is headquartered in Beijing, and there are also offices nationwide. Founded in 1907, as a national professional pharmaceutical organization, it is one of the...
as appointed by the government.
Pharmacy
lawLaw is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a primary social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on derivatives markets...
s generally include the regulations for the practice of pharmacy, the sale of liquids, the dispensing of narcotics, and the labeling and sale of dangerous drugs. The pharmacist sells and dispenses drugs within the provisions of the food and drug laws of the country in which he practices. These laws recognize the national
pharmacopoeiaPharmacopoeia , in its modern technical sense, is a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a government or a medical or pharmaceutical society .In a broader sense is a reference work for...
(which defines products used in medicine, their purity, dosages, and other pertinent data) as the standard for drugs.
Regulatory bodies with responsibilities related to pharmacy are:
- General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine
The General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine is a ministerial-level department under the State Council of the People's Republic of China that is in charge of national quality, metrology, entry-exit commodity inspection, entry-exit health quarantine, entry-exit...
- Ministry of Health
Ministry of Health may refer to:*Ministry of Health *Ministry of Health of the People's Republic of China*Ministry of Health *Ministry of Health...
- State Food and Drug Administration
- National Institute for the Control of Pharmaceutical and Biological Products
- Ministry of Agriculture
An agriculture ministry or department of agriculture is a ministry or other government agency charged with agriculture. The ministry is often headed by a minister for agriculture....
Research
Pharmaceutical research, in Chinese schools of pharmacy, embraces the
organic chemicalOrganic chemistry is a discipline within chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of chemical compounds that contain carbon...
synthesis of new chemical agents for use as drugs and is also concerned with the isolation and purification of plant constituents that might be useful as drugs. Research in pharmacy also includes formulation of dosage forms of medicaments and study of their stability, methods of
assayAn assay is a procedure in molecular biology for testing and/or measuring the activity of a drug or biochemical in an organism or organic sample. A quantitative assay may also measure the amount of a substance in a sample. Bioassays and immunoassays are among the many varieties of specialized...
, and
standardizationStandardization or standardisation is the process of developing and agreeing upon technical standards. A standard is a document that establishes uniform engineering or technical specifications, criteria, methods, processes, or practices. Some standards are mandatory while others are voluntary. ...
.
Another facet of pharmaceutical research that has attracted wide medical attention is the "availability" to the body (
bioavailabilityIn pharmacology, bioavailability is used to describe the fraction of an administered dose of unchanged drug that reaches the systemic circulation, one of the principal pharmacokinetic properties of drugs. By definition, when a medication is administered intravenously, its bioavailability is 100%...
) of various
dosage formA dosage form is the physical form of a dose of a chemical compound used as a drug or medication intended for administration or consumption...
s of drugs. Exact methods of determining levels of drugs in blood and organs have revealed that slight changes in the mode of manufacture or the incorporation of a small amount of
inertIn English, to be inert is to be in a state of doing little or nothing.-Chemistry:In chemistry, the term inert is used to describe something that is not chemically active. The noble gases were described as being inert because they did not react with the other elements or themselves...
ingredient in a tablet may diminish or completely prevent its absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, thus nullifying the action of the drug. Ingenious methods have been devised to test the bioavailability of dosage forms. Although such
in vitroA procedure performed in vitro is performed not in a living organism but in a controlled environment, such as in a test tube or Petri dish...
, or test-tube, methods are useful and indicative, the ultimate test of bioavailability is the patient's response to the dosage form of the drug.
Licensing systems for new medicinal products in China demand increasingly extensive and costly investigation and testing in the laboratory and in
clinical trialClinical trials are conducted to allow safety and efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices. These trials can only take place once satisfactory information has been gathered on the quality of the product and its non-clinical safety, and Health Authority/Ethics Committee approval is...
s to establish the efficacy and safety of new products in relation to the claims to be made for their use. Proprietary rights for innovation by the grant of patents and by the registration of trademarks have become increasingly important in the growth of the domestic pharmaceutical industry and its development internationally.
Journals
The results of research in pharmacy are usually published in such journals as the:
- Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica
- Adverse Drug Reaction Journal
- China Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy
- China Pharmaceutical Journal
- China Pharmacist
- China Pharmacy
- Chinese Journal of Antibiotics
- Chinese Journal of Clinical Pharmacy
- Chinese Journal of Drug Application and Monitoring
- Chinese Journal of Hospital Pharmacy
- Chinese Journal of Modern Applied Pharmacy
- Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines
- Chinese Journal of New Drugs
- Chinese Journal of New Drugs and Clinical Remedies
- Chinese Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis
- Chinese Journal of Pharmaceuticals
- Chinese Journal of Pharmacoepidemiology
- Chinese Pharmaceutical Journal
- Chinese Traditional and Herbal Drugs
- Herald of Medicine
- Journal of Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Journal of China Pharmacy (monthly; currently reaches 12,000 hospital pharmacies, being read by some 200,000 pharmacists nationwide.http://www.china-pharmacy.com/en-en/Affiche/ShowAffiche.aspx?ID=1)
- Journal of China Pharmaceutical University
- Journal of Chinese Materia Medica
- Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Pharmaceutical Care and Research
- Pharmaceutical Education
- Asian Journal of Social Pharmacy
Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences was founded jointly by Shenyang Pharmaceutical University and China Medicine Technical International Development Association. The journal is published 6 issues per year by Hong Kong Asiamed Publishing House in English for international distribution. There is no page charge, but cost of translation and English may be levied when necessary.
Retail pharmacy
Organizations
There are numerous pharmacy-related organizations. The
Chinese Pharmaceutical AssociationThe Chinese Pharmaceutical Association is the regulatory and professional body for pharmacists and pharmaceutical scientists in China. It is headquartered in Beijing, and there are also offices nationwide. Founded in 1907, as a national professional pharmaceutical organization, it is one of the...
(CPA) is the national organization of pharmacists and pharmaceutical scientists with the mission to represent and serve pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences development in China. CPA was founded in 1907, it now has nearly 3000 senior individual members and 35 group members. Through its group members, CPA connects, represents and serves more than 105,000 pharmacists and pharmaceutical scientists around the country. The CPA is a member of the International Pharmaceutial Federation.
There are also other societies in which history, teaching, and the military aspects of pharmacy are given special emphasis.
Retail (community) pharmacy
About 120,000 retail pharmacies operate in China. Most of them are quite small--less than 200 m2--but a few are as large as 1,000 m2 or more. The majority are licensed to carry medicines (prescription and over-the-counter [OTC]), traditional Chinese medicines, health foods (designated by the jian shi characters at the beginning of the registration certificate), and family planning products. Some retail pharmacies are also licensed to carry cosmetic products. It is relatively simple to add products the Chinese government classifies as cosmetics to a pharmacy's operating license. Chinese retail pharmacies do not carry products frequently found in US pharmacies, such as shampoo, diapers, nail polish, and batteries. China's pharmacies, however, sell products such as imported skin creams, specialty hair-care products (such as dyes or masks), and feminine-hygiene products.
All retail pharmacies prior to January 2003 - when WTO rules took effect - had by law must have been government-owned. Many of the state-owned pharmacy companies had consolidated to establish chains or franchises, and many more have contracted day-to-day management to an entrepreneur who pays a small percentage of the profits to its hands-off government owner. In Beijing and Shanghai, the local governments stopped approving applications for new pharmacies about three years ago, but is allowing chain stores to increase their number of outlets. Therefore, any "new" retail pharmacy in these markets must be affiliated with an existing outlet. In Shanghai, pharmacies must also contend with a rule that prohibits chains from opening outlets within a certain distance of existing pharmacies.
Local administrations for industry and commerce and local health bureaus oversee and regulate the pharmacies. Their monitoring of retail outlets includes spot checks of the types of products being sold, follow-ups on consumer complaints, and verification that retail prices match registered prices. Government monitors also verify that products comply with government regulations on labeling and other matters, and that merchandising and advertising materials are compliant and registered.
Chinese pharmacies have been undergoing dramatic changes as the retail medicine market opens up. Under planned reforms, China's retail pharmacies will begin selling a much higher volume of prescription drugs, and hospital pharmacies will eventually be restricted to dispensing prescriptions for inpatient use. Retail pharmacies' businesses will consist more and more of high-volume prescription drug sales and high-margin healthcare and personal-care products, including OTC drugs, health foods, family planning products, and beauty products, similar to a European or North American drugstore model.
More and more patients have been willing to buy non-prescription medicines in convenient drugstores instead of registering and queuing in hospitals. Large numbers of drug wholesalers have also entered the retail market due to the expected returns. Domestic pharmaceutical giant Sanjiu Enterprise Group has planned to open 8,000 to 10,000 outlets at a cost of 1.3 billion yuan (US $157 million).
China NepstarChina Nepstar , the trading name of China Nepstar Chain Drugstore Ltd. 中国海王星辰连锁药店股份有限公司, is China's largest retail drugstore chain on the number of directly operated stores....
is the largest retail drugstore chain in China, based on the number of directly operated stores. As of September 2007, the company had 1,791 stores in 62 cities. Nepstar has also planned to establish 5,000 to 10,000 chain stores in the next five years. It provides pharmacy services as well as a wide variety of other merchandise, including
over-the-counter drugOver-the-counter drugs are medicines that may be sold to a customer without a prescription from a health care professional, as compared to prescription drugs, which may only be sold to customers possessing a valid prescription...
s, herbal products, personal care products and nutritional supplements. The company also offers 1,108 private-label products under its own brand name. For the six months ended June 30, China Nepstar reported earnings of $4.6 million, after paying preferred dividends, on sales of $124.3 million.
As of 2003, China had 196 pharmaceutical enterprises with chain stores, reporting an annual sales volume of nearly 8 billion yuan (US $967 million). Most chain drugstores though are small in scale. Peace Pharmacy, one of China's largest drug store in
ChongqingChongqing is the largest and most populated municipality of the People's Republic of China's four provincial-level municipalities. It is also the only one of these municipalities in the western region of China...
had only 300 chain stores. Besides medicines, medical equipment are also sold in Chinese drugstores. This has been to meet the demand of consumers who have begun to favor products for self-diagnosis and self-health care.
Rapid
mergers and acquisitionsThe phrase mergers and acquisitions refers to the aspect of corporate strategy, corporate finance and management dealing with the buying, selling and combining of different companies that can aid, finance, or help a growing company in a given industry grow rapidly without having to create another...
, expansion in the retail industry is expected to gradually consolidate the sector.
Pharmacies, found in all towns, can help with minor injuries and ailments. Larger ones sometimes have a separate counter offering diagnosis and advice. Staff can usually help if the customer describes his or her symptoms. The selection of reliable Asian and Western products available is improving and it is possible to self-treat with herbal medicines. Contraceptives are widely available, as are antibiotics.
List
The key players in the drugstore industry in China are
http://www.ydzz.com/topInfo/topDetail.asp?orderid=11:
- China Nepstar
China Nepstar , the trading name of China Nepstar Chain Drugstore Ltd. 中国海王星辰连锁药店股份有限公司, is China's largest retail drugstore chain on the number of directly operated stores....
, Shenzhen-based - China's largest
- SuperPharm, Israeli company has about 65 stores in China, as of 2007
- Watsons, owned HK-based Hutchison Whampoa
- Shenzhen Accord Pharmacy Co., Ltd.
- Shenzhen Associate Pharmacy Co., Ltd.
- Guangzhou Pharmaceutical Company
- Jianmin Chain Drugstore
- Guangzhou Caizhilin Chain Drugstore
- Liaoning Chengda Co., Ltd.
- Hangzhou Wulin Drugstore Co., Ltd.
- Ningbo Siming Dayaofang Co., Ltd.
- Hunan Laobaixing Big Drugstore Chain Co., Ltd.
- Hunan Zhilin Medicine (Group) Co., Ltd.
- Hubei Ready Medicine Industry Co., Ltd.
- Chongqing Tongjunge Big Drugstore Chain Co., Ltd.
- Shanghai Huashi Pharmacy Co., Ltd.
- Beijing Golden Elephant Pharmacy Chain Co., Ltd.
Good Pharmacy Practice
As a result of the development of society and national economy, the people's health care level and the sense of self-medication are gradually improving. Therefore, the demand for good pharmacy service especially for carrying out pharmaceutical care not only in hospital but also in community pharmacies are increasing.
The China Nonprescription Medicines Association (CNMA) is a guild of pharmaceutical manufacturers and distributors, especially of those manufacturers of non-prescription medicines and community pharmacies. Based on the pharmaceutical care and licensed pharmacists system, the CNMA under the auspices of government and membership units, consulted the "International Good Pharmacy Practice for Developing Countries" and the "Standards for Quality of Pharmacy Services" and GPP documents of other countries available to constitute the Good Pharmacy Practice and Evaluation Standards of GPP especially for community pharmacies.
Pharmacoeconomics
Limited resources, amidst increasing demand for services, are leading to significant change in the implementation of health care in China, especially manifested lately in the pricing and reimbursement of pharmaceuticals.
Pharmaceutical expenditures can exceed 30% of total health expenditures in some poorer areas; so greater scrutiny and control over drugs are evident lately. Pharmacoeconomic research, either used when health providers examine different treatments to make cost-effective decisions, or when regulatory institutions estimate the greater value of a new product to set a reimbursement level, marks the horizon for the world's pharmaceutical markets.
PharmacoeconomicsPharmacoeconomics refers to the scientific discipline that compares the value of one pharmaceutical drug or drug therapy to another. It is a sub-discipline of Health economics. A pharmacoeconomic study evaluates the cost and effects of a pharmaceutical product...
as a science has begun to advance with methodological guidelines as it is increasingly applied in many countries.
China today must confront significant cost-containment in health care, as seen in every developing nation of the world. Pharmacoeconomic research thus will likely find favor to facilitate the evaluation of resource utilization for greater efficiency and better health outcomes in its population; however, pharmacoeconomics currently is stagnating in China due to the lack of adequate academic research centers, pharmaceutical industry investment, and government coordination.
It is predicted that China will, out of necessity, end this lag as its health care system overcomes its limitation on pharmacoeconomic knowledge and lessens influences from the old pharmaceutical
pricingPricing is a fundamental aspect of financial modelling, and is one of the four Ps of the marketing mix. The other three aspects are product, promotion, and place...
and
reimbursementReimbursement is the act of compensating someone for an expense. Often, a person is reimbursed for out-of-pocket expenses when the person incurs those expenses through employment or in carrying out duties for another party....
system. The upsurge import of more Western drugs now with the
World Trade OrganizationThe World Trade Organization is an international organization designed by its founders to supervise and liberalize international capital trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, replacing the General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade , which...
(WTO) entry is another force leading to China's eventual progress in this area.
Current applications within a few industrialized countries can serve as a prelude to describing lessons for and reforms taking place in China. There are encouraging, although not yet significant, steps being taken to embed more pharmacoeconomics into the Chinese health care system.
Research institutions
The China Center for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research (CCPOR) is a newly established research institution based in the Department of Health Economics and Management at the
Peking UniversityPeking University , colloquially known in Chinese as Beida , is a major research university located in Beijing, China. It is the first formally established modern research university in and the first national university of China. It was founded as Imperial Capital University in 1898 as a...
Guanghua School of ManagementThe Guanghua School of Management, Peking University is a business school in China. The School is staffed with about 100 full-time teaching faculty members. About half of the faculty earned their Ph.D degrees from prestigious universities overseas...
.
http://mba.pku.edu.cn/xwzx/mbanews/040802_1.htm
Fudan Center for Pharmacoeconomic Research and Evaluation (CPRE)
http://sph.fudan.edu.cn/pe/about_en.jsp of
Fudan UniversityFudan University , located in Shanghai, China, is one of the oldest, most prestigious and most selectiveuniversities in the People's Republic of China. Its institutional predecessor was founded in 1905, shortly before the end of China's imperial Qing dynasty. Fudan University is composed of four...
in Shanghai.
Pharmacoeconomics China or Chinese PharmacoEconomics Guidelines Project - Chinese Medical Doctor Association is the executive center of this project, and the center specializes in Chinese PharmacoEconomics Guidelines to improve the development of PharmacoEconomic assessment and clinical rational drug usage in China
Counterfeit drugs
Figures in China report almost 200,000 persons are said to have died in 2001 as a consequence of having taken
counterfeit drugs.
International facilities
The U.S. Pharmacopeia has an international facility in
ShanghaiShanghai is the largest city in China, and one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world, with over 20 million people. Located on China's central eastern coast at the mouth of the Yangtze River, the city is administered as a municipality of the People's Republic of China with province-level...
's Zhangjiang Hi-Tech to work with Chinese companies and regulators on meeting international standards and ensuring the safety of pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements and ingredients. It opened in 2006 and was inaugurated in 2007. (See:
USP-China Quarterly Update)
See also
- Chinese Pharmaceutical Association
The Chinese Pharmaceutical Association is the regulatory and professional body for pharmacists and pharmaceutical scientists in China. It is headquartered in Beijing, and there are also offices nationwide. Founded in 1907, as a national professional pharmaceutical organization, it is one of the...
- China Association of Chain Drug Stores
- Pharmaceutical industry in China
- State Food and Drug Administration
- Public health in China
- Pharmaceutical policy
Pharmaceutical policy is a branch of health policy that deals with the development, provision and use of medications within a health care system. It embraces drugs , biologics , vaccines and natural health products...
, national pharmaceuticals policyA National Pharmaceuticals Policy is one that aims at ensuring that people get good quality drugs at the lowest possible price, and that doctors prescribe the minimum of required drugs in order to treat the patient's illness...
- Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries
Many developing nations have developed national drug policies, a concept that has been actively promoted by the WHO. For example, the national drug policy for Indonesia drawn up in 1983 had the following objectives:...
- Pharmacies of Norway
Pharmacies of Norway are dominated by the three large companies Alliance Boots, Apokjeden and Norsk Medisinaldepot. In total there are 606 pharmacies, of which only 16 do not belong to the four dominant chains Apotek 1, Vitusapotek, Alliance Apotek and Ditt Apotek...
, for a country comparison
- Pharmacy Council of India
The Pharmacy education and profession in India up to graduate level is regulated by the Pharmacy Council of India , a statutory body governed by the provisions of the Pharmacy Act, 1948 passed by the Indian Parliament....
- India's National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research
The National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, India was established by the Government of India to cater to the long-standing demand for setting up a dedicated nodal for quality higher education and advanced research in the pharmaceutical sciences...
- Pharmacy
- Essential medicines
Essential medicines, as defined by the World Health Organization are "those drugs that satisfy the health care needs of the majority of the population; they should therefore be available at all times in adequate amounts and in appropriate dosage forms, at a price the community can afford."The WHO...
- List of World Health Organization Essential Medicines
- National Formulary
A National Formulary is a manual containing a list of medicines that are approved for prescription throughout the country, indicating which products are interchangeable. It includes key information on the composition, description, selection, prescribing, dispensing and administration of medicines...
- Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines
The mission of the Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines of the World Health Organization is "to help save lives and improve health by closing the huge gap between the potential that essential drugs have to offer and the reality that for millions of people -- particularly the poor and...
- Universities Allied for Essential Medicines
- Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines
The Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines is an international campaign started by Médecins Sans Frontières to increase the availability of essential medicines in developing countries. MSF often has difficulties treating patients because the medicines required are too expensive or are no...
- Collaborating Centre on International Drug Monitoring in Uppsala
Further reading
- Professional Code or Legal Sanctions: Pharmacy in China by Du Liping, University of Melbourne (Health & History, 2004. 6/1: 87–96)
- Pharmacy in Hong Kong The Pharmaceutical Journal Vol 267 No 7179 p911-936; 22-29 December 2001
- Good Pharmacy Practice (GPP) in Developing Countries
- Public health development of China Shandong Statistical Bureau
- An important task of the 21st century: Strengthening international exchange and cooperation in pharmaceutical education Zongmin, Chen, Na, Li, Taikang, Huang. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. Vol. 64, No. 2 (2000)
- Integrating R&D with Manufacturing and Pharmaceutical Education in China Wang Qiang, Shi Zhixiang, and Chen Zongmin. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. Vol. 64, No. 4 (2000)
- The Teaching Contents and Methods of International Pharmaceutical Business Ma Aixia. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. Vol. 65, No. 3 (2001)
- Deepening the Reform of Higher Pharmaceutical Education for the 21st Century Xiaoming Wu. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. Vol. 64, No. 3 (2000)
Pharmacovigilance
Pharmacoeconomics
- Pharmacoeconomics and Outcome Research in China Shanlian Hu. MD. MSc. ProfessorSchool of Public Health, Fudan University, ISPOR 2nd Asia-Pacific Conference, March 6, 2006.
- Liu G.G.; Liu C. Potential Expanded Use of Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research in China Pharmaceutical Development and Regulation, Volume 1, Number 3, 2003 , pp. 169-177(9)
- Liu Bao Peng; Chong Qing Tan; Xiao Min Wan; Cui, Wei. "Cost-Utility Analysis
Cost-utility analysis is a form of economic analysis used to guide procurement decisions. The most common and well-known application of this analysis is in pharmacoeconomics, especially health technology assessment .-CUA in health economics:...
in China: Differences and Difficulties Compared with Developed Countries". PharmacoEconomicsPharmacoeconomics refers to the scientific discipline that compares the value of one pharmaceutical drug or drug therapy to another. It is a sub-discipline of Health economics. A pharmacoeconomic study evaluates the cost and effects of a pharmaceutical product...
, Volume 25, Number 7, 2007 , pp. 619-619(1)
External links
Chinese pharmaceutical policy
International conferences
People
Comparative study