Parasitic gap
Encyclopedia
In grammar
, a parasitic gap is a construction wherein the dropping of an argument is dependent on a co-varying argument having been fronted in a local context.
and Elisabet Engdahl explored the properties of parasitic gaps in great depth. This work was extended by Noam Chomsky
in 1982, arguing that parasitic gaps are actually silent pronouns, licensed under particular conditions predicted by the general theory of grammar. Aspects of this analysis were developed in the framework of Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG) in the mid 1980s, and refined in the Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar
(HPSG), done by Carl Pollard and Ivan Sag. More recent research by Chomsky and his student Jonathan Nissenbaum has refined this view, arguing (in effect) that the pronouns themselves undergo a syntactic rule not unlike the rule that moves phrases like which book to the front of a sentence.
example is:
The key feature here is that both review and reading have a "gap" where their objects should be (indicated above with underscores), and both gaps appear to function as variables bound by which book; i.e. "Which book x did she review x without reading x?". The second gap is considered to be "parasitic" on the first, since it (unlike the first gap) cannot easily stand on its own, shown by the following example.
This has the same structure as the first sentence but with a non-WH matrix object, which doesn't front.
Parasitic gaps are typically found in structures that would otherwise be islands to extraction, such as adjuncts as in the above example, or subjects, as in the following example (where the subject even supporters of __ hosts the parasitic gap licensed by the true gap following dislike). This example further shows that parasitic gaps need not follow their licensing gap.
Parasitic gaps are an important topic of study in syntax
, especially in the framework of generative grammar
. It has been argued by some linguists working in generative frameworks that speakers' intuitive knowledge of the construction can only be explained by an innate universal grammar
. The question of how these sentences should be analysed is still very much open.
Grammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
, a parasitic gap is a construction wherein the dropping of an argument is dependent on a co-varying argument having been fronted in a local context.
Discovery
The phenomenon appears to have been discovered by John Robert Ross in the 1960s, but remained undiscussed until papers by Knut Tarald TaraldsenKnut Tarald Taraldsen
Knut Tarald Taraldsen, born 1948 in Oslo, is a Norwegian linguist working in Tromsø, Norway as a senior researcher at the Center for Advanced Study in Theoretical Linguistics .His work mostly concerns syntactic theory...
and Elisabet Engdahl explored the properties of parasitic gaps in great depth. This work was extended by Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and activist. He is an Institute Professor and Professor in the Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at MIT, where he has worked for over 50 years. Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics" and...
in 1982, arguing that parasitic gaps are actually silent pronouns, licensed under particular conditions predicted by the general theory of grammar. Aspects of this analysis were developed in the framework of Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG) in the mid 1980s, and refined in the Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar
Head-driven phrase structure grammar
Head-driven phrase structure grammar is a highly lexicalized, non-derivational generative grammar theory developed by Carl Pollard and Ivan Sag. It is the immediate successor to generalized phrase structure grammar. HPSG draws from other fields such as computer science and uses Ferdinand de...
(HPSG), done by Carl Pollard and Ivan Sag. More recent research by Chomsky and his student Jonathan Nissenbaum has refined this view, arguing (in effect) that the pronouns themselves undergo a syntactic rule not unlike the rule that moves phrases like which book to the front of a sentence.
Example
An EnglishEnglish language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
example is:
- Which book did she review __ without reading __?
The key feature here is that both review and reading have a "gap" where their objects should be (indicated above with underscores), and both gaps appear to function as variables bound by which book; i.e. "Which book x did she review x without reading x?". The second gap is considered to be "parasitic" on the first, since it (unlike the first gap) cannot easily stand on its own, shown by the following example.
- *Which book did she review War and Peace without reading __.
This has the same structure as the first sentence but with a non-WH matrix object, which doesn't front.
Parasitic gaps are typically found in structures that would otherwise be islands to extraction, such as adjuncts as in the above example, or subjects, as in the following example (where the subject even supporters of __ hosts the parasitic gap licensed by the true gap following dislike). This example further shows that parasitic gaps need not follow their licensing gap.
- Which candidate do even supporters of __ tend to dislike __?
Parasitic gaps are an important topic of study in syntax
Syntax
In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in natural languages....
, especially in the framework of generative grammar
Generative grammar
In theoretical linguistics, generative grammar refers to a particular approach to the study of syntax. A generative grammar of a language attempts to give a set of rules that will correctly predict which combinations of words will form grammatical sentences...
. It has been argued by some linguists working in generative frameworks that speakers' intuitive knowledge of the construction can only be explained by an innate universal grammar
Universal grammar
Universal grammar is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all possible natural human languages have.Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without being taught...
. The question of how these sentences should be analysed is still very much open.