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Krio (also Creo or Creole) is the lingua franca
Lingua franca

A lingua franca is a language systematically used to communicate between persons not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both persons' mother tongues....
 language spoken throughout Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea in the northeast, Liberia in the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean in the southwest....
. The language is native to the Sierra Leone Creole people
Sierra Leone Creole people

The Sierra Leone Creole are an ethnic group in Sierra Leone, they are descendants of freed slaves from the West Indies, freed African American slaves from the United States, and Sierra Leone Liberated Africanss....
 or Krios, (a community of about 300,000 descendants of freed slaves from the West Indies, United States
United States

The United States of America is a Federal government constitutional republic comprising U.S. state and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its Contiguous United States and Washington, D.C., the Capital districts and territories, lie between the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Oceans, Borders of the U...
 and Britain). The Krio language is spoken by 97% of Sierra Leone's population. The Krio language unites all the different ethnic groups in the country, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.

The Krio language is an offshoot of the language brought by the Nova Scotians
African American settlers (Sierra Leone)

The Nova Scotian Settlers were African Americans who escaped to the British during the Revolutionary War. John Clarkson , the English abolitionist and first governor of Freetown, was the most respected friend and patron of the Nova Scotian settlers....
 from North America
North America

North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and almost totally in the western hemisphere....
 and the numerous liberated Yoruba slaves who settled in Sierra Leone. The vocabulary
Lexicon

In linguistics, the lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, including its words and expressions. More formally, it is a language's inventory of lexemes....
 of Krio is derived primarily from English, while its sound system, grammar and sentence structure are heavily influenced by Africa
Africa

Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km? including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area....
n languages ( at least 12 African languages
African languages

There are an estimated 2,000 languages spoken in Africa. They fall into four major language family:*Afro-Asiatic languages stretches from North Africa to the Horn of Africa and Southwest Asia....
), including aspects from the : Yoruba language
Yoruba language

Yoruba is a dialect continuum of West Africa with over 25 million speakers. The native tongue of the approximately 28 million Yoruba people, it is spoken, among other languages, in Nigeria, Benin, and Togo and traces of it are found among communities in Brazil, Sierra Leone , northern Ghana and Cuba ....
 of Nigeria
Nigeria

Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federation constitutional republic comprising States of Nigeria and one Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria....
 and Twi
Twi

Twi , specifically Ashanti Twi, is a language spoken in Ghana by about 15 million people. It is one of the three mutually intelligible dialects of the Akan language, the others being Akuapem Twi and Fante language, which belong to the Kwa languages....
 of Ghana
Ghana

The Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa. It borders C?te d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south....
.






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Krio (also Creo or Creole) is the lingua franca
Lingua franca

A lingua franca is a language systematically used to communicate between persons not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both persons' mother tongues....
 language spoken throughout Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea in the northeast, Liberia in the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean in the southwest....
. The language is native to the Sierra Leone Creole people
Sierra Leone Creole people

The Sierra Leone Creole are an ethnic group in Sierra Leone, they are descendants of freed slaves from the West Indies, freed African American slaves from the United States, and Sierra Leone Liberated Africanss....
 or Krios, (a community of about 300,000 descendants of freed slaves from the West Indies, United States
United States

The United States of America is a Federal government constitutional republic comprising U.S. state and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its Contiguous United States and Washington, D.C., the Capital districts and territories, lie between the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Oceans, Borders of the U...
 and Britain). The Krio language is spoken by 97% of Sierra Leone's population. The Krio language unites all the different ethnic groups in the country, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.

The Krio language is an offshoot of the language brought by the Nova Scotians
African American settlers (Sierra Leone)

The Nova Scotian Settlers were African Americans who escaped to the British during the Revolutionary War. John Clarkson , the English abolitionist and first governor of Freetown, was the most respected friend and patron of the Nova Scotian settlers....
 from North America
North America

North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and almost totally in the western hemisphere....
 and the numerous liberated Yoruba slaves who settled in Sierra Leone. The vocabulary
Lexicon

In linguistics, the lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, including its words and expressions. More formally, it is a language's inventory of lexemes....
 of Krio is derived primarily from English, while its sound system, grammar and sentence structure are heavily influenced by Africa
Africa

Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km? including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area....
n languages ( at least 12 African languages
African languages

There are an estimated 2,000 languages spoken in Africa. They fall into four major language family:*Afro-Asiatic languages stretches from North Africa to the Horn of Africa and Southwest Asia....
), including aspects from the : Yoruba language
Yoruba language

Yoruba is a dialect continuum of West Africa with over 25 million speakers. The native tongue of the approximately 28 million Yoruba people, it is spoken, among other languages, in Nigeria, Benin, and Togo and traces of it are found among communities in Brazil, Sierra Leone , northern Ghana and Cuba ....
 of Nigeria
Nigeria

Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federation constitutional republic comprising States of Nigeria and one Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria....
 and Twi
Twi

Twi , specifically Ashanti Twi, is a language spoken in Ghana by about 15 million people. It is one of the three mutually intelligible dialects of the Akan language, the others being Akuapem Twi and Fante language, which belong to the Kwa languages....
 of Ghana
Ghana

The Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa. It borders C?te d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south....
. Krio's standard greeting kushe, for instance, is derived from the Yoruba greeting è kú isé ("greetings on your work"), while the krio word "pan" meaning (on top of/doing something) descends directly from the Jamaican patois word "pon" meaning the same thing, the krio expression "chaka-chaka" meaning (messy/untidy) also descends from Jamaican patois this is due to the fact that some of the freed slaves were from the West Indies particularly Jamaica
Jamaica

Jamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. It is about south of Cuba, and west of the island of Hispaniola, on which Haiti and the Dominican Republic are situated....
 (Jamaican Maroons
Jamaican Maroons

The Jamaican Maroons were runaway slaves who fought the United Kingdom during the 18th century, and the term is now used for their descendants. Some of the Jamaican Maroons were taken to Nova Scotia, Canada and from there some were taken to Freetown, Sierra Leone....
).

All sets of freed slaves the Jamaican Maroons
Jamaican Maroons

The Jamaican Maroons were runaway slaves who fought the United Kingdom during the 18th century, and the term is now used for their descendants. Some of the Jamaican Maroons were taken to Nova Scotia, Canada and from there some were taken to Freetown, Sierra Leone....
, African Americans, Nova Scotian settlers, Sierra Leone Liberated Africans
Sierra Leone Liberated Africans

The Sierra Leone Liberated Africans were slaves freed by the Royal Navy from slave ships rescued on the high seas and brought to Freetown, now Sierra Leone's capital city....
 influenced Krio
Krio

Krio may refer to:*Sierra Leone Creole people*Krio language, language of the Sierra Leone Krio people*Krio Dayak people, an ethnic group in West Kalimantan, Indonesia...
, but it was the Jamaican Maroons, Nova Scotian Settlers and Yoruba Liberated Africans who were the most influential. The basic English structure of Krio is an offshoot of the English spoken by the Nova Scotians, while some of the African words in Krio come from the Yoruba language spoken by liberated Yorubas.

Krio is distinct from Pidgin English
Pidgin English

Pidgin English is a non-specific name used to refer to any of the many pidgin languages derived from English language. English-based pidgins include:...
 as it is an English-based creole language but more of a language in its own right, with fixed grammatical structures and rules. Krio also draws extensively from other European languages, namely Portuguese
Portuguese language

Portuguese is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia and Portugal. It is derived from the Latin language spoken by the Romanization Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula around 2000 years ago....
 and French
French language

French is a Romance language spoken around the world by around 80 million people as first language, by 190 million as second language, and by about another 200 million people as an acquired tongue, with significant speakers in 54 countries....
; e.g., "tan", which means to behave in a way/behaviour, although debated is thought to have been derived from Spanish
Spanish language

Spanish or Castilian is a Romance languages that originated in northern Spain, and gradually spread in the Kingdom of Castile and evolved into the principal language of government and trade....
, and "plasas," the Krio word for sauce
Sauce

In cooking, a sauce is liquid or sometimes semi-solid food served on or used in preparing other foods. Sauces are not normally consumed by themselves; they add flavor, moisture, and visual appeal to another dish....
, is also thought to have been derived from the Portuguese
Portuguese language

Portuguese is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia and Portugal. It is derived from the Latin language spoken by the Romanization Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula around 2000 years ago....
 word "palavra(s)".

Language origins

The early roots of Krio
Krio

Krio may refer to:*Sierra Leone Creole people*Krio language, language of the Sierra Leone Krio people*Krio Dayak people, an ethnic group in West Kalimantan, Indonesia...
 are believed to go back to the Atlantic slave trade
Atlantic slave trade

The Atlantic slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of primarily African people supplied to the colonies of the New World that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean....
 era in the 17th and 18th centuries when an English-based "pidgin
Pidgin

A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common, in situations such as trade....
" language (West African Pidgin English
West African Pidgin English

West African Pidgin English, also called Guinea Coast Creole English, was the lingua franca of commerce along the West African coast during the era of the Atlantic slave trade....
), also called Guinea Coast Creole English arose to facilitate the coastal trade between Europeans and Africans. This early pidgin later became the lingua franca of regional trade among West Africans themselves and spread up the river systems to the African interior. After the founding of Freetown, this preexisting pidgin was heavily influenced by the speech of the various groups of freed slaves landed in Sierra Leone between 1787 and about 1855. The pidgin gradually evolved to become a stable language, the native language of descendants of the freed slaves (which are now a distinct ethnic and cultural group, the Krios), and the national language of Sierra Leone .

Language usage


Krio usage in Sierra Leone

Most ethnic and cultural Creoles live in and around Freetown
Freetown

Freetown is the Capital and largest city of Sierra Leone. It is a major port city on the Atlantic Ocean located in the Western Area of Sierra Leone and with a population of 1,070,200 ....
, the capital of Sierra Leone, and their community accounts for only about 3% or 5.4% of Sierra Leone's total population (Freetown is the province where the return slaves from London and Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia is a Canadian Provinces and territories of Canada located on Canada's southeastern coast. It is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada....
 settled). However, because of their cultural influence in Sierra Leone — especially during the period of colonial rule — their language is used as the lingua franca among all the ethnic groups in Sierra Leone. Many Mende
Mende people

The Mende are one of the two largest ethnic groups in Sierra Leone, along with the Temne people. They make 30% of Sierra Leone's total population or 1,888,432 members....
s, Temne
Temne people

The Temne people are one of the two largest ethnic groups in Sierra Leone, along with the Mende people. They live primarily in the Northern Province, Sierra Leone and the Western Area and they make up 30% of Sierra Leone's total population or 1,888,432 members....
s, and Limba
Limba people (Sierra Leone)

The Limba people is a major ethnic groups in the Republic of Sierra Leone. They form the third largest ethnic group in the country, about 9.5% of Sierra Leone's total population ....
s grow up in the interior of the country speaking both their native languages and Krio. Children born in Freetown
Freetown

Freetown is the Capital and largest city of Sierra Leone. It is a major port city on the Atlantic Ocean located in the Western Area of Sierra Leone and with a population of 1,070,200 ....
 to parents who are not ethnic Creoles grow up speaking Krio and only Krio
Krio

Krio may refer to:*Sierra Leone Creole people*Krio language, language of the Sierra Leone Krio people*Krio Dayak people, an ethnic group in West Kalimantan, Indonesia...
 as their mother tongue but may not necessarily speak it as well as a Krio.

Krio speakers abroad

The Creole people acted as traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century, and as a result there are also Krio-speaking communities in The Gambia
The Gambia

The Gambia commonly known as Gambia, is a country in West Africa. The Gambia is the smallest country in Africa, enclave by Senegal, and has a small coast on the Atlantic Ocean in the west....
, Nigeria
Nigeria

Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federation constitutional republic comprising States of Nigeria and one Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria....
, Cameroon
Cameroon

The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary state of central and western Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south....
, and Equatorial Guinea
Equatorial Guinea

The Republic of Equatorial Guinea is a Spanish-speaking country located in Central Africa. With an area of 28,000 km2 it is one of the smallest countries in continental Africa, having a population estimated at half a million....
, . As a small number of Liberated Africans returned to the land of their origins such as the saros of Nigeria
Nigeria

Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federation constitutional republic comprising States of Nigeria and one Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria....
, "saros" not only took their anglo-British names with them but also krio words like "sabi" and "na" which were installed in to Nigerian Pidgin English.

Language revival

During the period of colonial rule, Sierra Leoneans were discouraged from speaking Krio; but after Independence from Great Britain in 1961, writers and educators began promoting its use. In the 1960s, Thomas Decker translated some of Shakespeare's plays into Krio, and composed original poetry in the language. In the 1980s the New Testament was translated into Krio.

While English is Sierra Leone's official language, the Ministry of Education began using Krio as the medium of instruction in some primary schools in Freetown in the 1990s. Radio stations now broadcast a wide variety of programs in Krio. Sierra Leonean politicians also routinely give public speeches in the language.

The New York City Public School system recently recognized Krio as a "home language" allowing children to be recognized as speaking Krio rather than other African languages.

Classification

Krio is an English-based creole
English-based creole languages

An English-based creole language is a creole language that was significantly influenced by the English language. Most English creoles were formed in English colonies, following the great expansion of British naval military power and trade in the 17th and 18th centuries....
 similar in many respects to Nigerian Pidgin English and Cameroonian Pidgin English
Cameroonian Pidgin English

Cameroonian Pidgin English, or Cameroonian Creole, is a linguistic entity of Cameroon. It is also known as Kamtok . Five varieties are currently recognised:...
, but it has its own distinctive character. It is also similar to English-based creole languages spoken in the Americas, especially the Gullah language
Gullah language

The Gullah language is a creole language spoken by the Gullah , an African American population living on the Sea Islands and the coastal region of the U.S....
, Jamaican Creole
Jamaican Creole

Jamaican Patois, known locally as Patois or simply Jamaican, is an English language?Languages of Africa creole language spoken primarily in Jamaica and the Jamaican diaspora....
 or patois
Patois

Patois is any language that is considered nonstandard dialect, although the term is not formally defined in linguistics. It can refer to pidgins, creole language, dialects, and other forms of native or local speech, but not commonly to jargon or slang, which are vocabulary-based forms of cant ....
, and Belizean Creole. It also shares some linguistic similarities with non-English creoles, such as the French-based creole languages in the Caribbean.

Grammar

Like in English there is no grammatical gender. However, there are the hints of nominative, accusative and genitive cases. Verbs do not conjugate according to person or number but reflect their tense.

Interrogatives

The following interrogatives can be used:

udat who
wetin what
ustem when
usay where
wetin mek why


In addition, like many other Creoles, a question can be asked simply by intonation. E.g. Yu de go?: 'Are you going' vs yu de go: 'you are going'

Pronouns


There is no distinction between masculine and feminine in any person and unlike English there is a 2nd person plural form. Ah,mi,mi:I,me,my. Yu,yu,yu:You,You,Your.I,am,in:he,him,his. Wi,Wi,Wi:We,Us,Our. Una,Una,Unu:You pl,You,Your. Den,Dem,Den:They,Them

Orthography


Krio uses the Latin Alphabet
Latin alphabet

The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. It evolved from the western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumae alphabet, and was initially developed by the Ancient Romes to write the Latin....
 as used in English but without Q
Q

Q is the seventeenth letter of the modern Latin alphabet. Its name in English language is spelled cue ....
q and X
X

X is the twenty-fourth letter in the modern Latin alphabet. Its name in English language is spelled ex , plural exes .History...
x and with three letters from the African reference alphabet
African reference alphabet

An African reference alphabet was first proposed in 1978 by a UNESCO-organized conference held in Niamey, Niger, and the proposed alphabet was revised in 1982....
, ?? (open E), ??
Eng (letter)

Eng or engma is a letter of the Latin alphabet, used to represent a velar nasal in the written form of some languages....
 (eng), and ??
Open O

Open o is a letter of the extended Latin alphabet. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, it represents the open-mid back rounded vowel. It is used in the orthographies of many African languages using the African reference alphabet....
 (open O). Three tones
Tone (linguistics)

Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning?that is, to distinguish or inflection words. All languages use pitch to express emotional and other paralinguistic information, and to convey emphasis, contrast, and other such features in what is called intonation , but not all languages use tones to distingu...
 can be distinguished in Krio and are sometimes marked with grave
Grave accent

The grave accent is a diacritical mark used in written Catalan language, French language, Greek language until 1982 , Italian language, Norwegian language, Occitan language, Portuguese language, Scottish Gaelic language, Vietnamese language, Welsh language, Dutch language, and other languages....
 (à), acute
Acute accent

The acute accent is a diacritic mark used in many modern written languages with alphabets based on the Latin alphabet, Cyrillic alphabet and Greek alphabet writing systems....
 (á), and circumflex
Circumflex

The circumflex is a diacritic mark used in written Serbian language, Croatian language, Esperanto, French language, West Frisian language, Norwegian language, Romanian language, Slovak language, Vietnamese language, Romaji, Romanization of Persian, Welsh language, Portuguese language, Italian language, Afrikaans language, Turkish language...
 (â) accents over the vowels for low, high, and falling tones respectively but these accents are not employed in normal usage. An alternative orthography with Latin letters only has been devised by Thomas Decker.

The complete alphabet with digraph
Digraph (orthography)

A digraph, bigraph , or digram is a pair of characters used to write one phoneme or a sequence of phonemes that does not correspond to the normal values of the two characters combined....
s follows with Decker's orthography in parentheses:

Krio letter or digraph Example word English meaning
A,a wata water
Aw, aw naw (nau)now
Ay, ay nayn (nain)nine
B, b b?ku (bohku)many, very much (< French
French language

French is a Romance language spoken around the world by around 80 million people as first language, by 190 million as second language, and by about another 200 million people as an acquired tongue, with significant speakers in 54 countries....
 beaucoup)
Ch, ch chamchew
D, d dia(dya)expensive (< dear)
E, e let (leyt)late
?p (ep)help
F, f f?s (fohs)first
G, g got(goat)goat
Gb, gb gbanadifficult (from <Temne
Temne

Temne can refer to:* A West Atlantic language, the Temne language is one of the most widely spoken indigenous languages of Sierra Leone, West Africa....
)
H, h argyu/argyument (agyu/agyument)argument
I, i titigirl
J, j jompjump
K, k k?ntri (kohntri)country
Kp, kp Don/kpatakpatacompletely (Done< English
English language

English is a West Germanic language that originated in Anglo-Saxon England and has lingua franca status in many parts of the world as a result of the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the British Empire in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries and that of the United States from the mid 20th century onwa...
)
L, l livlive
M, m muv/mufmove
N, n nakknock
Ny, ny nyunew
?, ? si? (sing)sing
O, o wokwork
b?n (bohn)born, give birth, conceive
?yl (ohyl)oil
P, p padifriend
R, r ren (reyn)rain
S, s safsoft
Sh, sh shapsharp
T, t tifsteal (< thief)
U, u umanwoman
V, v votvote
W, w wes (weys)buttocks (< waist)
Y, y yalayellow
Z, z zirozero
Zh, zh pl?zh? (plehzhoh)pleasure


Language samples

Below is a sample of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly . The Guinness Book of Records describes the UDHR as the "Most Translated Document" in the world....
 in Krio:

KrioEnglish
Atikul Wan Article 1

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.


Below are some sample sentences in Krio:

Kushe. - "Hello."
Kushe-o. - "Hello."
Wetin na yu nem? - "What is your name?"
Mi nem Jemz. - "My name is James."
Usai yu k?m?t? - "Where do you come from?"
A k?m?t Estinz. - "I come from Hastings."
Us wok yu de du? - "What work do you do?"
Mi na ticha. - "I am a teacher."
Na us skul yu de tich? - "At what school do you teach?"
I de tich na Prins ?v Welz. - "I teach at Prince of Wales."
Mi gladi f? mit yu. - "I am happy to meet you."
Mis?f gladi f? mit yu. - "I myself am happy to meet you."
OK, a de go naw. - "OK, I am going now."
?rayt, wi go tok bak. - "Alright, we will talk again."


Krio wordEnglish meaning
Salone Sierra Leone
KushehHello, Hi
PadyFriend
TitiGirl
BoboBoy
PickinChild
Wetin What
WowohUgly
PalavahConflict
Usay Where
Wetin Meck Why
Ustem When
WakkaWalk
bohku Many, very much
Vex Angry
DiaExpensive
ChamChew
MotocarCar
UmanWoman
SabiKnow
FettFight
WefWife
LefStop
MamaMother
PapaFather
GrannyGrandmother
GrandpaGrandfather
tifSteal
JompJump


Films

Krio is used (incorrectly) early in the 2006 film Blood Diamond
Blood Diamond (film)

Blood Diamond is a 2006 in film action film/adventure film drama film co-produced and directed by Edward Zwick, director of Glory and The Last Samurai, and starring Leonardo DiCaprio, Jennifer Connelly and Djimon Hounsou....
 between Danny Archer (played by Leonardo DiCaprio
Leonardo DiCaprio

Leonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio is an American actor, film producer whose career rose with his role in the television sit-com Growing Pains and quickly moved to films....
) and a character named Commander Zero.

It can also be heard in the music video for "Diamonds from Sierra Leone", a song by American rapper Kanye West.

In 2007, work was completed on an unsanctioned, dubbed Krio version of the 1977 Franco Zeffirelli film "Jesus of Nazareth." The dubs were recorded by a team of over 14 native Krio speakers, over a period of 9 months in the Lungi region of Sierra Leone. The film aired on ABC-TV and a limited run of 300 copies were produced, which were mostly sold in Lungi and Freetown. A clip of this version is available on YouTube.

See also

  • Krio Dayak language
    Krio Dayak language

    The Krio Dayak or Keriu or Krio language is the language of the Krio Dayak people in West Kalimantan, Indonesia....
  • Keriu language
  • List of numbers in various languages
    List of numbers in various languages

    The following tables list the names and symbols for the numbers 0 through 10 in various languages and Writing systems of the world. Where possible, each language's native writing system is used, along with transliterations in Latin script and other important writing systems where applicable....
  • Ian Hancock
    Ian Hancock

    Ian Hancock is a renowned linguist, Romani people scholar, and human rights advocate. He was born and raised in England, and is one of the main contributors in the field of Romani studies....


External links

at Umeå University
Umeå University

Ume? University is a university in Ume? in the Midnorth of Sweden. The university was founded in 1965 and is the 5th oldest within Sweden's present borders....
, Sweden
Sweden

Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic countries on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden has land borders with Norway to the west and Finland to the northeast, and it is connected to Denmark by the ?resund Bridge in the south....
.