Inductivism
Encyclopedia
In the philosophy of science
inductivism exists both in a classical naive version, which has been highly influential, and in various more sophisticated versions. The naive version, which can be traced back to thinkers such as David Hume
, says that general statements (theories) have to be based on empirical observations, which are subsequently generalized into statements which can either be regarded as true or probably true.
The classical example goes from a series of observations:
Swan no. 1 was white, Swan no. 2 was white… Swan no. 3 was white… to the general statement: All swans are white.
In support of this view it can be said that we often appear to think in this manner.
In science the proof that there is a law of gravity would then consist in having recorded a large number of observations of things falling, or of bodies attracting one another. Typically classical inductivism will require large and varied amounts of data, which also means that it has difficulties in explaining the importance of singular observations, such as the one in 1918 where light could be observed to be bent around the sun in accordance with Einstein's prediction in his General theory of relativity.
Another problem is that no inductive conclusion can yield certainty, and here David Hume
also famously pointed out that it cannot even be shown that inductive conclusions yield probable conclusions as one gets involved in a circular argument in that case, trying to prove the value of induction through induction.
Karl Popper
in The Logic of Scientific Discovery
emerged as a major critic of classical inductivism, which he saw as an essentially conservative strategy. He replaced induction with falsification
. His simplest argument here says that no induction can prove that all swans are white, since this will require an infinite number of observations, but that the observation of a single non-white swan will falsify the statement that all swans are white. The logical rule invoked here is modus tollens
and is purely deductive.
A more detailed discussion of induction involves the whole theory of probability
.
Philosophy of science
The philosophy of science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. It is also concerned with the use and merit of science and sometimes overlaps metaphysics and epistemology by exploring whether scientific results are actually a study of truth...
inductivism exists both in a classical naive version, which has been highly influential, and in various more sophisticated versions. The naive version, which can be traced back to thinkers such as David Hume
David Hume
David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment...
, says that general statements (theories) have to be based on empirical observations, which are subsequently generalized into statements which can either be regarded as true or probably true.
The classical example goes from a series of observations:
Swan no. 1 was white, Swan no. 2 was white… Swan no. 3 was white… to the general statement: All swans are white.
In support of this view it can be said that we often appear to think in this manner.
In science the proof that there is a law of gravity would then consist in having recorded a large number of observations of things falling, or of bodies attracting one another. Typically classical inductivism will require large and varied amounts of data, which also means that it has difficulties in explaining the importance of singular observations, such as the one in 1918 where light could be observed to be bent around the sun in accordance with Einstein's prediction in his General theory of relativity.
Another problem is that no inductive conclusion can yield certainty, and here David Hume
David Hume
David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment...
also famously pointed out that it cannot even be shown that inductive conclusions yield probable conclusions as one gets involved in a circular argument in that case, trying to prove the value of induction through induction.
Karl Popper
Karl Popper
Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH FRS FBA was an Austro-British philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics...
in The Logic of Scientific Discovery
The Logic of Scientific Discovery
The Logic of Scientific Discovery is a 1934 book by Karl Popper. It was originally written in German and titled Logik der Forschung. Then Popper reformulated his book in English and republished it in 1959. This forms the rare case of a major work to appear in two languages, both written and one...
emerged as a major critic of classical inductivism, which he saw as an essentially conservative strategy. He replaced induction with falsification
Falsification
Falsification may refer to:* The act of disproving a proposition, hypothesis, or theory: see Falsifiability* Mathematical proof* Falsified evidence...
. His simplest argument here says that no induction can prove that all swans are white, since this will require an infinite number of observations, but that the observation of a single non-white swan will falsify the statement that all swans are white. The logical rule invoked here is modus tollens
Modus tollens
In classical logic, modus tollens has the following argument form:- Formal notation :...
and is purely deductive.
A more detailed discussion of induction involves the whole theory of probability
Probability
Probability is ordinarily used to describe an attitude of mind towards some proposition of whose truth we arenot certain. The proposition of interest is usually of the form "Will a specific event occur?" The attitude of mind is of the form "How certain are we that the event will occur?" The...
.