Encyclopedia
Humanism is a broad category of active ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine
right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualities—particularly rationalism. Humanism is a component of a variety of more specific
philosophical systems, and is also incorporated into some religious schools of thought.
Humanism entails a commitment to the search for truth and morality through human means in support of human interests. In focusing on the capacity for self-determination, humanism rejects transcendental justifications, such as a dependence on faith, the supernatural, or divinely revealed texts. Humanists endorse universal morality based on the commonality of human nature, suggesting that solutions to our social and cultural problems cannot be parochial.
Religion
Humanism can be used in some ways to fulfill or supplement the role of religions in some people's lives, and therefore qualifies as a stance on religion. It is entirely compatible with naturalism , but doesn't strictly require either of these, and is compatible with some religions.
While the broad category of humanism encompasses intellectual currents running through a wide variety of philosophical or religious thought, it is embraced by some people as a complete life stance. For more on this, see
Humanism .
Though the dominant form of modern humanism is agnostic in theology, not all forms are. However, regardless of whether or not the supernatural exists, its importance in human affairs is denied. In this way, humanism does not necessarily rule out some form of theism or
deism, and there are many humanists who consider themselves religious, some of whom are members of religious organizations. What humanism clearly rejects is deference to supernatural beliefs in resolving human affairs, not necessarily the beliefs themselves.
For that matter, agnosticism or atheism on its own doesn't necessarily entail humanism. Indeed, many different and incompatible philosophies are atheistic in nature.
Renaissance humanism, and its emphasis on returning to the sources, contributed to the Protestant reformation in helping to gain a more accurate translation of Biblical texts.
Knowledge
According to humanism, it is up to us to find the truth, not wait for it to be handed to us through revelation,
mysticism, tradition, or anything else that is incompatible with the application of logic to the evidence. In demanding that we avoid blindly accepting unsupported beliefs, it supports scientific skepticism and the
scientific method, rejecting authoritarianism and extreme skepticism, and rendering faith an unacceptable basis for action. Likewise, humanism asserts that knowledge of right and wrong is based on our best understanding of our individual and joint interests, rather than stemming from a transcendental or arbitrarily local source.
Speciesism
Some have interpreted humanism to be a form of speciesism, mostly because of the word itself, but this doesn't appear to be the case. Humanism does exalt human traits, but doesn't necessarily insist that no other species could or do have the same, or that other species have no rights just because they are not human. The term was originally intended to point out the focus on human affairs and concerns
as opposed to those of gods; not meant to be taken as opposed to other species. For these reasons, humanism appears to be neutral with regard to issues of
animal rights.
Optimism
Humanism features an optimistic attitude about the capacity of people, but it does not involve believing that human nature is purely good or that each and every person is capable of living up to the humanist ideals of rationality and morality. If anything, there is the recognition that living up to our potential is hard work and requires the help of others. The ultimate goal is human flourishing; making life better for all of us. Even among humanists who do believe in some sort of an afterlife, the focus is on doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world better for those who come after us, not on suffering through life to be rewarded afterwards.
History
Contemporary humanism can be traced back through the
Renaissance to its ancient Greek roots.
The evolution of the meaning of the word
humanism is fully explored in Nicolas Walter
Humanism — What's in the Word.
Greek roots
Sixth century B.C.E pantheists
Thales of Miletus and Xenophanes of Colophon prepared the way for later Greek humanist thought. Thales is credited with creating the maxim "Know thyself", and Xenophanes refused to recognize the gods of his time and reserved the divine for the principle of unity in the universe. Later
Anaxagoras contributed to the development of science as a method of understanding the universe.
Pericles, a pupil of Anaxagoras, influenced the development of democracy, freedom of thought, and the exposure of superstitions. Although little of their work survives, Protagoras and
Democritus both espoused agnosticism and a spiritual morality not based on the supernatural. The historian
Thucydides is noted for his scientific and rational approach to history.
Renaissance
Renaissance humanism was a broad movement that affected the social, cultural, literary and political landscapes of
Europe. Beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century, renaissance humanism revived the study of the Latin and Greek languages; and caused the resultant revival of the studies of science, philosophy, art and poetry of classical antiquity.
The "revival", or "re-birth", was based upon interpretations of Roman and Greek texts, whose emphasis upon art and the senses marked a great change from the contemplation upon the Biblical values of humility, introspection, and meekness. Beauty was held to represent a deep inner virtue and value, and "an essential element in the path towards God".
The crisis of Renaissance humanism came with the trial of
Galileo, which forced the choice between basing the authority of one's beliefs on one's observations, or upon religious teaching. The trial made the contradictions between humanism and traditional religion visibly apparent to all, and humanism was branded a "dangerous doctrine".
Renaissance humanists believed that the
liberal arts should be practiced by all levels of wealth. They also approved of self, human worth and individual dignity.
Noteworthy humanists scholars from this period include the Dutch theologist
Erasmus and the English author
Thomas More.
Modern era
One of the earliest forerunners of contemporary chartered humanist organizations was the Humanistic Religious Association formed in 1853 in London. This early group was democratically organized, with male and female members participating in the election of the leadership and promoted knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and the arts.
In 1929 Charles Francis Potter founded the First Humanist Society of New York whose advisory board included
Julian Huxley,
John Dewey,
Albert Einstein and
Thomas Mann. Potter was a minister from the Unitarian tradition and in 1930 he and his wife, Clara Cook Potter, published
. Throughout the 1930s Potter was a well-known advocate of women’s rights, access to birth control, "civil divorce laws", and an end to capital punishment.
F.C.S. Schiller considered his work to be tied to the Humanist movement. Schiller himself was influenced by the pragmatism of
William James.
Raymond B. Bragg, the associate editor of
The New Humanist, sought to consolidate the input of L. M. Birkhead, Charles Francis Potter, and several members of the Western Unitarian Conference. Bragg asked Roy Wood Sellars to draft a document based on this information which resulted in the publication of the
Humanist Manifesto in 1933. The Manifesto and Potter's book became the cornerstones of modern humanism. Both of these sources envision humanism as a religion.
In 1941 the American Humanist Association was organized. Noted members of The AHA include
Isaac Asimov, who was the president before his death, and writer
Kurt Vonnegut, who is the current honorary president.
Modern humanist philosophies
There are many people who consider themselves humanists, and much variety in the exact type of humanism to which they subscribe. There is some disagreement over terminology and definitions, with some people using narrower or broader interpretations. Not all people who call themselves humanists hold beliefs that are genuinely humanistic, and not all people who do hold humanistic beliefs apply the label of humanism to themselves.
All of this aside, humanism can be divided into secular and religious types.
Secular humanism
Secular humanism is the branch of humanism that rejects theistic religious belief and the existence of a supernatural. It is often associated with scientists and academics, although it is not at all limited to these groups. Secular humanists generally believe that following humanist principles naturally leads to
secularism, on the basis that religious views cannot be supported rationally. There are secular humanistic organizations, though these could not be accurately described as churches.
More often than not, secular humanism is what people are referring to when they speak of humanism in general, making it something of a default. Some secular humanists take this even further by denying that religious humanists qualify as genuine humanists. Others feel that the ethical side of humanism transcends the issue of religion, because being a good person is more important than supernatural beliefs.
Some non-secular people, particularly Christian fundamentalists, use the term
humanist to refer to all atheists, though the accuracy of this usage is disputed.
Some secular humanists prefer the term
Humanist , as unanimously endorsed by General Assembly of the International Humanist and Ethical Union following universal endorsement of the Amsterdam Declaration 2002.
Religious humanism
Religious humanism is the branch of humanism that considers itself religious , or embraces some form of theism, deism, or supernaturalism, without necessarily being allied with organized religion, as such. It is often associated with artists, liberal Christians, and scholars in the liberal arts. Other types of people that may be considered religious humanists are those who, despite believing in a religion, don't consider it necessary to derive all their moral values from it. Some feel that, because their religious beliefs are moral, and therefore humane, they are humanists. In particular, it is not uncommon for religious humanitarians to be referred to as humanists, although the accuracy of this usage is disputed.
A number of religious humanists feel that secular humanism is too coldly logical and rejects the full emotional experience that makes us human. From this comes the notion that secular humanism is inadequate in meeting the human need for a socially fulfilling philosophy of life. Disagreements over things of this nature have resulted in friction between secular and religious humanists, despite their commonalities.
A compromise, that suggests how secular and religious humanism might be unified, is outlined in a Four Part Wikibook, see
, , , and .
Other forms of humanism
Humanism is also sometimes used to describe "humanities" scholars, . As mentioned above, it is sometimes used to mean humanitarianism. There is also a school of humanistic psychology, and an educational method.
Educational humanism
Humanism, as a current in
education, began to dominate school systems in the 17th century. It held that the studies that develop our intellect are those that make us "most truly human". The practical basis for this was faculty psychology, or the belief in distinct intellectual faculties, such as the analytical, the mathematical, the linguistic, etc. Strengthening one faculty was believed to benefit other faculties as well . A key player in the late 19th-century educational humanism was U.S. Commissioner of Education W.T. Harris, whose "Five Windows of the Soul" were believed especially appropriate for "development of the faculties". Educational humanists believe that "the best studies, for the best kids" are "the best studies" for all kids. While humanism as an educational current was largely discredited by the innovations of the early 20th century, it still holds out, in some elite preparatory schools and some high school disciplines .
See also
Manifestos and statements setting out humanist viewpoints
- Humanist Manifesto
- Amsterdam Declaration 2002
- A Secular Humanist Declaration
Forms of humanism
Related philosophies
- Deism
- Extropianism
- Infinitism
- Objectivism
- Pragmatism
- Rationalism
Organizations
- Institute for Humanist Studies
- International Humanist and Ethical Union
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- Rationalist International
- Freethought Association
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- Council for Secular Humanism
- International Humanist and Ethical Union
- Rationalist International
- Institute for Humanist Studies
- American Humanist Association
- British Humanist Association
- Human-Etisk Forbund, the Norwegian Humanist Association
- Humanist Society of Scotland
- Humanist Association of Ireland
- Sidmennt, the Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association
- Humanist International
- Humanist Movement
- Humanist Party
For more organizations see Other
- Antihumanism
- Humanistic psychology
- Social psychology
- Religious freedom — freedom of religion and belief
- Speciesism
References
- Petrosyan, M. 1972 Humanism: Its Philosophical, Ethical, and Sociological Aspects, Progress Publishers, Moscow.
External links
Manifestos and statements setting out humanist viewpoints
Introductions to humanism
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- from the American Humanist Association
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Web articles
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- British magazine from the Rationalist Press Association
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Web books
and , , , and , four Parts of a Wikibook.
Web directories
- directory category
- directory category
