Fluoride is the anion F
−, the
reducedRedox reactions describe all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed....
form of
fluorineFluorine is the chemical element with atomic number 9, represented by the symbol F. It is the lightest element of the halogen column of the periodic table and has a single stable isotope, fluorine-19. At standard pressure and temperature, fluorine is a pale yellow gas composed of diatomic...
when as an ion and when bonded to another element. Both organofluorine compounds and
inorganicInorganic compounds have traditionally been considered to be of inanimate, non-biological origin. In contrast, organic compounds have an explicit biological origin. However, over the past century, the classification of inorganic vs organic compounds has become less important to scientists,...
fluorine containing compounds are called fluorides. Fluoride, like other
halideA halide is a binary compound, of which one part is a halogen atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less electronegative than the halogen, to make a fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, or astatide compound. Many salts are halides...
s, is a monovalent ion (−1 charge). Its compounds often have properties that are distinct relative to other halides. Structurally, and to some extent chemically, the fluoride ion resembles the
hydroxideHydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and a hydrogen atom held together by a covalent bond, and carrying a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, as a ligand, a nucleophile, and a...
ion. Fluorine-containing compounds range from potent toxins such as
sarinSarin, or GB, is an organophosphorus compound with the formula [2CHO]CH3PF. It is a colorless, odorless liquid, which is used as a chemical weapon. It has been classified as a weapon of mass destruction in UN Resolution 687...
to life-saving pharmaceuticals such as
efavirenzEfavirenz is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor and is used as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy for the treatment of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1....
, and from inert materials such as carbon tetrafluoride to the highly reactive
sulfur tetrafluorideSulfur tetrafluoride is the chemical compound with the formula SF4. This species exists as a gas at standard conditions. It is a corrosive species that releases dangerous HF upon exposure to water or moisture...
. The range of fluorine-containing compounds is vast because fluorine is capable of forming compounds with all the elements except helium and neon.
Occurrence
Solutions of inorganic fluorides in water contain F
− and bifluoride HF
2−. Few inorganic fluorides are soluble in water without undergoing significant hydrolysis. Examples of inorganic fluorides include
hydrofluoric acidHydrofluoric acid is a solution of hydrogen fluoride in water. It is a valued source of fluorine and is the precursor to numerous pharmaceuticals such as fluoxetine and diverse materials such as PTFE ....
(HF),
sodium fluorideSodium fluoride is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula NaF. A colorless solid, it is a source of the fluoride ion in diverse applications. Sodium fluoride is less expensive and less hygroscopic than the related salt potassium fluoride....
(NaF), and
uranium hexafluorideUranium hexafluoride , referred to as "hex" in the nuclear industry, is a compound used in the uranium enrichment process that produces fuel for nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. It forms solid grey crystals at standard temperature and pressure , is highly toxic, reacts violently with water...
(UF
6). In terms of its reactivity, fluoride differs significantly from
chlorideThe chloride ion is formed when the element chlorine, a halogen, picks up one electron to form an anion Cl−. The salts of hydrochloric acid HCl contain chloride ions and can also be called chlorides. The chloride ion, and its salts such as sodium chloride, are very soluble in water...
and other halides, and is more strongly solvated due to its smaller radius/charge ratio. Its closest chemical relative is
hydroxideHydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and a hydrogen atom held together by a covalent bond, and carrying a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, as a ligand, a nucleophile, and a...
. The Si-F linkage is one of the strongest single bonds. In contrast, other silyl halides are easily hydrolyzed.
Natural occurrence
Many fluoride minerals are known, but of paramount commercial importance are
fluoriteFluorite is a halide mineral composed of calcium fluoride, CaF2. It is an isometric mineral with a cubic habit, though octahedral and more complex isometric forms are not uncommon...
and
fluorapatiteFluorapatite, often with the alternate spelling of fluoroapatite, is a mineral with the formula Ca53F . Fluorapatite is a hard crystalline solid. Although samples can have various color , the pure mineral is colorless as expected for a material lacking transition metals...
. Fluoride is found naturally in low concentration in drinking water and foods. Waters from underground sources are more likely to have higher levels of fluoride, whereas the concentration in seawater averages 1.3 parts per million (ppm). Fresh water supplies generally contain between 0.01–0.3 ppm, whereas the ocean contains between 1.2 and 1.5 ppm.
Applications
Fluorides are pervasive in modern technology.
Hydrofluoric acidHydrofluoric acid is a solution of hydrogen fluoride in water. It is a valued source of fluorine and is the precursor to numerous pharmaceuticals such as fluoxetine and diverse materials such as PTFE ....
is the fluoride synthesized on the largest scale. It is produced by treating fluoride minerals with
sulfuric acidSulfuric acid is a strong mineral acid with the molecular formula . Its historical name is oil of vitriol. Pure sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive, colorless, viscous liquid. The salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates...
. Hydrofluoric acid and its anhydrous form hydrogen fluoride are used in the production of fluorocarbons and aluminium fluorides. Hydrofluoric acid has a variety of specialized applications, including its ability to dissolve glass.
Pesticides
Sulfuryl fluorideSulfuryl fluoride is the inorganic compound with the formula SO2F2. This easily condensed gas has properties more similar to sulfur hexafluoride than sulfuryl chloride, being resistant to hydrolysis even up to 150 °C...
is used as a pesticide and fumigant on agricultural crops. In 2010, the
United States Environmental Protection AgencyThe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress...
proposed to withdraw the use of sulfuryl fluoride on food. Sulfuryl fluoride releases fluoride when metabolized.
CryoliteCryolite is an uncommon mineral identified with the once large deposit at Ivigtût on the west coast of Greenland, depleted by 1987....
is a pesticide that can leave fluoride on agricultural commodities.
Organic synthesis
Fluoride reagents are significant in
syntheticOrganic synthesis is a special branch of chemical synthesis and is concerned with the construction of organic compounds via organic reactions. Organic molecules can often contain a higher level of complexity compared to purely inorganic compounds, so the synthesis of organic compounds has...
organic chemistryOrganic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...
. Due to the affinity of
siliconSilicon is a chemical element with the symbol Si and atomic number 14. A tetravalent metalloid, it is less reactive than its chemical analog carbon, the nonmetal directly above it in the periodic table, but more reactive than germanium, the metalloid directly below it in the table...
for fluoride, and the ability of silicon to expand its coordination number,
silyl etherSilyl ethers are a group of chemical compounds which contain a silicon atom covalently bonded to an alkoxy group. The general structure is R1R2R3Si−O−R4 where R4 is an alkyl group or an aryl group. Silyl ethers are usually used as protecting groups for alcohols in organic synthesis...
protecting groupA protecting group or protective group is introduced into a molecule by chemical modification of a functional group in order to obtain chemoselectivity in a subsequent chemical reaction...
s can be easily removed by the fluoride sources such as
sodium fluorideSodium fluoride is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula NaF. A colorless solid, it is a source of the fluoride ion in diverse applications. Sodium fluoride is less expensive and less hygroscopic than the related salt potassium fluoride....
and
tetra-n-butylammonium fluorideTetra-n-butylammonium fluoride or TBAF is a quaternary ammonium salt with the chemical formula 4N+F-. It is commercially available as the trihydrate and as a solution in tetrahydrofuran....
(TBAF).
Inorganic fluorides
Sulfur hexafluorideSulfur hexafluoride is an inorganic, colorless, odorless, and non-flammable greenhouse gas. has an octahedral geometry, consisting of six fluorine atoms attached to a central sulfur atom. It is a hypervalent molecule. Typical for a nonpolar gas, it is poorly soluble in water but soluble in...
is an inert, nontoxic insulator that is used in electrical transformers.
Uranium hexafluorideUranium hexafluoride , referred to as "hex" in the nuclear industry, is a compound used in the uranium enrichment process that produces fuel for nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. It forms solid grey crystals at standard temperature and pressure , is highly toxic, reacts violently with water...
is used in the separation of isotopes of uranium between the
fissileIn nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts , often producing free neutrons and photons , and releasing a tremendous amount of energy...
isotope
U-235- References :* .* DOE Fundamentals handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor theory , .* A piece of U-235 the size of a grain of rice can produce energy equal to that contained in three tons of coal or fourteen barrels of oil. -External links:* * * one of the earliest articles on U-235 for the...
and the non-fissile isotope
U-238Uranium-238 is the most common isotope of uranium found in nature. It is not fissile, but is a fertile material: it can capture a slow neutron and after two beta decays become fissile plutonium-239...
in preparation of
nuclear reactorA nuclear reactor is a device to initiate and control a sustained nuclear chain reaction. Most commonly they are used for generating electricity and for the propulsion of ships. Usually heat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid , which runs through turbines that power either ship's...
fuelNuclear fuel is a material that can be 'consumed' by fission or fusion to derive nuclear energy. Nuclear fuels are the most dense sources of energy available...
and atomic bombs. The
volatility of fluoridesFluoride volatility is jargon that describes the volatility of fluorides, which is relevant to the separation of radionuclides. Hexafluorides and pentafluorides have much lower boiling points than the lower-valence fluorides. Most difluorides and trifluorides have high boiling points, while most...
of uranium and other elements may also be used for nuclear fuel reprocessing.
Fluoropolymers
Fluoropolymers such as
polytetrafluoroethylenePolytetrafluoroethylene is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that finds numerous applications. PTFE is most well known by the DuPont brand name Teflon....
, Teflon, are used as chemically inert and biocompatible materials for a variety of applications, including as
surgical implantsIn medicine, a prosthesis, prosthetic, or prosthetic limb is an artificial device extension that replaces a missing body part. It is part of the field of biomechatronics, the science of using mechanical devices with human muscle, skeleton, and nervous systems to assist or enhance motor control...
such as coronary bypass grafts, and a replacement for
soft tissueIn anatomy, the term soft tissue refers to tissues that connect, support, or surround other structures and organs of the body, not being bone. Soft tissue includes tendons, ligaments, fascia, skin, fibrous tissues, fat, and synovial membranes , and muscles, nerves and blood vessels .It is sometimes...
in cosmetic and
reconstructive surgeryReconstructive surgery is, in its broadest sense, the use of surgery to restore the form and function of the body, although Maxillo-Facial Surgeons, Plastic Surgeons and Otolaryngologists do reconstructive surgery on faces after trauma and to reconstruct the head and neck after cancer.Other...
. These compounds are also commonly used as
non-stick surfaceA non-stick surface is a surface engineered to reduce the ability of other materials to stick to it. A non-stick coating may be applied to a substrate to produce such a surface. One common application of non-stick coatings is cookware. Until recently, Teflon has dominated this market. However,...
s in
cookware and bakewareCookware and bakeware are types of food preparation containers commonly found in the kitchen. Cookware comprises cooking vessels, such as saucepans and frying pans, intended for use on a stove or range cooktop. Bakeware comprises cooking vessels intended for use inside an oven...
, and the fluoropolymer fabric
Gore-TexGore-Tex is a waterproof/breathable fabric, and a registered trademark of W. L. Gore and Associates. It was co-invented by Wilbert L. Gore, Rowena Taylor, and Gore's son, Robert W. Gore. Robert Gore was granted on April 27, 1976, for a porous form of polytetrafluoroethylene with a...
used in breathable garments for outdoor use.
Cavity prevention
Fluoride-containing compounds are used in topical and systemic
fluoride therapyFluoride therapy is the delivery of fluoride to the teeth topically or systemically in order to prevent tooth decay which results in cavities. Most commonly, fluoride is applied topically to the teeth using gels, varnishes, toothpaste/dentifrices or mouth rinse. Systemic delivery involves...
for preventing
tooth decayDental caries, also known as tooth decay or a cavity, is an irreversible infection usually bacterial in origin that causes demineralization of the hard tissues and destruction of the organic matter of the tooth, usually by production of acid by hydrolysis of the food debris accumulated on the...
. They are used for
water fluoridationWater fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities; this can occur naturally or by adding fluoride...
and in many products associated with
oral hygieneTeeth cleaning is part of oral hygiene and involves the removal of dental plaque from teeth with the intention of preventing cavities , gingivitis, and periodontal disease. People routinely clean their own teeth by brushing and interdental cleaning, and dental hygienists can remove hardened...
. Originally,
sodium fluorideSodium fluoride is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula NaF. A colorless solid, it is a source of the fluoride ion in diverse applications. Sodium fluoride is less expensive and less hygroscopic than the related salt potassium fluoride....
was used to fluoridate water;
hexafluorosilicic acid (H
2SiF
6) and its salt sodium hexafluorosilicate (Na
2SiF
6) are more commonly used additives, especially in the United States. The fluoridation of water is known to prevent tooth decay and is considered by the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and PreventionThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services headquartered in Druid Hills, unincorporated DeKalb County, Georgia, in Greater Atlanta...
as "one of 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century". In some countries where large, centralized water systems are uncommon, fluoride is delivered to the populace by fluoridating table salt. Fluoridation of water has its critics (see
Water fluoridation controversyThe water fluoridation controversy arises from moral, ethical, and safety concerns regarding the fluoridation of public water supplies. The controversy occurs mainly in English-speaking countries, as Continental Europe does not practice water fluoridation...
).
Biomedical applications
Positron emission tomographyPositron emission tomography is nuclear medicine imaging technique that produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide , which is introduced into the body on a...
is commonly carried out using fluoride-containing pharmaceuticals such as
fluorodeoxyglucoseFludeoxyglucose or fluorodeoxyglucose , commonly abbreviated 18F-FDG or FDG, is a radiopharmaceutical used in the medical imaging modality positron emission tomography...
, which is labelled with the radioactive isotope
fluorine-18Fluorine-18 is a fluorine radioisotope which is an important source of positrons. It has a mass of 18.0009380 u and its half-life is 109.771 minutes....
, which emits
positronThe positron or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron. The positron has an electric charge of +1e, a spin of ½, and has the same mass as an electron...
s when it decays into
18O.
Numerous drugs contain fluorine including
antipsychoticAn antipsychotic is a tranquilizing psychiatric medication primarily used to manage psychosis , particularly in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. A first generation of antipsychotics, known as typical antipsychotics, was discovered in the 1950s...
s such as
fluphenazineFluphenazine is a typical antipsychotic drug used for the treatment of psychoses such as schizophrenia and acute manic phases of bipolar disorder. It belongs to the piperazine class of phenothiazines....
, HIV protease inhibitors such as
tipranavirTipranavir, or tipranavir disodium, is a nonpeptidic protease inhibitor manufactured by Boehringer-Ingelheim under the trade name Aptivus...
,
antibioticAn antibacterial is a compound or substance that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria.The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic; today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of various infectious diseases, antibiotic has come to denote a broader range of...
s such as
ofloxacinOfloxacin is a synthetic chemotherapeutic antibiotic of the fluoroquinolone drug class considered to be a second-generation fluoroquinolone. The original brand, Floxin, has been discontinued by the manufacturer in the United States on 18 June 2009, though generic equivalents continue to be...
and
trovafloxacinTrovafloxacin is a broad spectrum antibiotic that inhibits the uncoiling of supercoiled DNA in various bacteria by blocking the activity of DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV. It was withdrawn from the market due to the risk of hepatotoxicity...
, and anesthetics such as
halothaneHalothane is an inhalational general anesthetic. Its IUPAC name is 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane. It is the only inhalational anesthetic agent containing a bromine atom; there are several other halogenated anesthesia agents which lack the bromine atom and do contain the fluorine and...
. Fluorine is incorporated in the drug structures to reduce
drug metabolismDrug metabolism is the biochemical modification of pharmaceutical substances by living organisms, usually through specialized enzymatic systems. This is a form of xenobiotic metabolism. Drug metabolism often converts lipophilic chemical compounds into more readily excreted polar products...
, as the strong C-F bond resists deactivation in the liver by
cytochrome P450 oxidaseThe cytochrome P450 superfamily is a large and diverse group of enzymes. The function of most CYP enzymes is to catalyze the oxidation of organic substances. The substrates of CYP enzymes include metabolic intermediates such as lipids and steroidal hormones, as well as xenobiotic substances...
s.
Fluoride salts are commonly used to
inhibitAn enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to enzymes and decreases their activity. Since blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance, many drugs are enzyme inhibitors. They are also used as herbicides and pesticides...
the activity of phosphatases, such as
serineSerine is an amino acid with the formula HO2CCHCH2OH. It is one of the proteinogenic amino acids. By virtue of the hydroxyl group, serine is classified as a polar amino acid.-Occurrence and biosynthesis:...
/
threonineThreonine is an α-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCHCHCH3. Its codons are ACU, ACA, ACC, and ACG. This essential amino acid is classified as polar...
phosphatases. Fluoride mimics the
nucleophilicA nucleophile is a species that donates an electron-pair to an electrophile to form a chemical bond in a reaction. All molecules or ions with a free pair of electrons can act as nucleophiles. Because nucleophiles donate electrons, they are by definition Lewis bases.Nucleophilic describes the...
hydroxyl ion in these enzymes' active sites.
Beryllium fluorideBeryllium fluoride is the inorganic compound with the formula BeF2. This white solid is the principal precursor for the manufacture of beryllium metal.-Structure and bonding:...
and
aluminium fluorideAluminium fluoride is an inorganic compound used primarily in the production of aluminium. This colourless solid can be prepared synthetically but also occurs in nature.-Production and occurrence:...
are also used as phosphatase inhibitors, since these compounds are structural mimics of the
phosphateA phosphate, an inorganic chemical, is a salt of phosphoric acid. In organic chemistry, a phosphate, or organophosphate, is an ester of phosphoric acid. Organic phosphates are important in biochemistry and biogeochemistry or ecology. Inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in...
group and can act as analogues of the
transition stateThe transition state of a chemical reaction is a particular configuration along the reaction coordinate. It is defined as the state corresponding to the highest energy along this reaction coordinate. At this point, assuming a perfectly irreversible reaction, colliding reactant molecules will always...
of the reaction.
Toxicology
Fluoride-containing compounds are so diverse that it is not possible to generalize on their
toxicityToxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage a living or non-living organisms. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ , such as the liver...
, which depends on their reactivity and structure, and in the case of salts, their solubility and ability to release fluoride ions.
Soluble fluoride salts, of which
sodium fluorideSodium fluoride is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula NaF. A colorless solid, it is a source of the fluoride ion in diverse applications. Sodium fluoride is less expensive and less hygroscopic than the related salt potassium fluoride....
is the most common, are mildly toxic but have resulted in both accidental and suicidal deaths from
acute poisoningAcute toxicity describes the adverse effects of a substance that result either from a single exposure or from multiple exposures in a short space of time...
. While the minimum fatal dose in humans is not known, the lethal dose for most adult humans is estimated at 5 to 10 g (which is equivalent to 32 to 64 mg/kg elemental fluoride/kg body weight). However, a case of a fatal poisoning of an adult with 4 grams of sodium fluoride is documented, while a dose of 120 g sodium fluoride has been survived. A toxic dose that may lead to adverse health effects is estimated at 3 to 5 mg/kg of elemental fluoride. For
Sodium fluorosilicateSodium fluorosilicate is a compound with formula Na2SiF6....
(Na
2SiF
6), the median lethal dose (LD
50) orally in rats is 0.125 g/kg, corresponding to 12.5 g for a 100 kg adult. The fatal period ranges from 5 min to 12 hours. The mechanism of toxicity involves the combination of the fluoride anion with the calcium ions in the blood to form insoluble
calcium fluorideCalcium fluoride is the inorganic compound with the formula CaF2. This ionic compound of calcium and fluorine occurs naturally as the mineral fluorite . It is the source of most of the world's fluorine. This insoluble solid adopts a cubic structure wherein calcium is coordinated to eight fluoride...
, resulting in hypocalcemia; calcium is indispensable for the function of the nervous system, and the condition can be fatal. Treatment may involve oral administration of dilute
calcium hydroxideCalcium hydroxide, traditionally called slaked lime, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ca2. It is a colourless crystal or white powder and is obtained when calcium oxide is mixed, or "slaked" with water. It has many names including hydrated lime, builders lime, slack lime, cal, or...
or
calcium chlorideCalcium chloride, CaCl2, is a salt of calcium and chlorine. It behaves as a typical ionic halide, and is solid at room temperature. Common applications include brine for refrigeration plants, ice and dust control on roads, and desiccation...
to prevent further absorption, and injection of
calcium gluconateCalcium gluconate is a mineral supplement.-Hypocalcemia:10% calcium gluconate solution is the form of calcium most widely used in the treatment of hypocalcemia. This form of calcium is superior to calcium lactate, but it only contains 0.93% calcium ion. Calcium gluconate is a salt of calcium and...
to increase the calcium levels in the blood.
Hydrogen fluorideHydrogen fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula HF. This colorless gas is the principal industrial source of fluorine, often in the aqueous form as hydrofluoric acid, and thus is the precursor to many important compounds including pharmaceuticals and polymers . HF is widely used in the...
is more dangerous than salts such as NaF because it is corrosive and volatile, and can result in fatal exposure through inhalation or upon contact with the skin; calcium gluconate gel is the usual antidote.
In the higher doses used to treat
osteoporosisOsteoporosis is a disease of bones that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis the bone mineral density is reduced, bone microarchitecture is deteriorating, and the amount and variety of proteins in bone is altered...
, sodium fluoride can cause pain in the legs and incomplete stress fractures when the doses are too high; it also irritates the stomach, sometimes so severely as to cause ulcers. Slow-release and
entericEnteric can refer to:* A general term describing something related to or associated with the intestines** Microorganisms that inhabit the intestines are commonly known as enteric bacteria* Enteric nervous system...
-coated versions of sodium fluoride do not have gastric side effects in any significant way, and have milder and less frequent complications in the bones. In the lower doses used for water fluoridation, the only clear adverse effect is
dental fluorosisDental fluorosis is a developmental disturbance of dental enamel caused by excessive exposure to high concentrations of fluoride during tooth development. The risk of fluoride overexposure occurs between the ages of 3 months and 8 years. In its mild forms , fluorosis often appears as unnoticeable,...
, which can alter the appearance of children's teeth during
tooth developmentTooth development or odontogenesis is the complex process by which teeth form from embryonic cells, grow, and erupt into the mouth. Although many diverse species have teeth, non-human tooth development is largely the same as in humans...
; this is mostly mild and is unlikely to represent any real effect on aesthetic appearance or on public health.
See also
- Fluoride deficiency
- Sodium monofluorophosphate
Sodium monofluorophosphate, commonly abbreviated MFP, is the inorganic compound with the formula Na2PO3F. Typical for a salt, MFP is odourless, colourless, and water-soluble. This salt is an ingredient in some toothpastes.-Uses of MFP:...
- Total ionic strength adjustment buffer
A total ionic strength adjustment buffer is a buffer solution which increases the ionic strength of a solution to a relatively high level. This is important for potentiometric measurements, including ion selective electrodes, because they measure the activity of the analyte rather than its...
- Hexafluoride
A hexafluoride is a chemical compound with the general formula XF6. Sixteen elements are known to form stable hexafluorides. Nine of these elements are transition metals, three are actinides, and four are nonmetals or metalloids.- Physical properties :...