Fight Club is a
1996The year 1996 in literature involved some significant events and new books.-Events:*Harper Lee's novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, is removed from an advanced placement English reading list in Lindale, Texas because it "conflicted with the values of the community."* In the United Kingdom, the first...
novel by
Chuck PalahniukCharles Michael "Chuck" Palahniuk is an American transgressional fiction novelist and freelance journalist. He is best known for the award-winning novel Fight Club, which was later made into a film directed by David Fincher. He lives near Vancouver, Washington.-Early life:Palahniuk was born in...
. The book follows the experiences of an unnamed
protagonistA protagonist is the main character of a literary, theatrical, cinematic, video game, or musical narrative, around whom the events of the narrative's plot revolve and with whom the audience is intended to share the most empathy...
struggling with insomnia. The insomnia is aggravated by frequent business travel and an apparent boredom with his comfortable lifestyle. Inspired by his doctor's exasperated remark that insomnia is not suffering, he impersonates a seriously ill person in order to participate in several support groups. He and another (female) impersonator - Marla - discover each other and form an uneasy truce. Disturbed into insomnia again by Marla, he happens to meet a mysterious
anarchistAnarchism is a political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which consider the state, as compulsory government, to be unnecessary, harmful, and/or undesirable, and favors the absence of the state ....
named Tyler Durden and establishes an underground
fightingA Combat sport, also known as a Combative sport, is a competitive contact sport where two combatants fight against each other using certain rules of engagement , typically with the aim of simulating parts of real hand to hand combat...
club as radical
psychotherapyPsychotherapy or personal counseling with a psychotherapist, is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client or patient in problems of living.It aims to increase the individual's sense of their own well-being...
.
In 1999, director
David FincherDavid Andrew Leo Fincher is an American filmmaker and music video director known for his dark and stylish movies such as Seven, Fight Club, Zodiac and The Curious Case of Benjamin Button.- Early life and career :...
adapted the novel into a
film of the same nameFight Club is a 1999 American film adapted from the 1996 novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk. The film was directed by David Fincher and stars Edward Norton, Brad Pitt, and Helena Bonham Carter. Norton plays the unnamed protagonist, an "everyman" who is discontented with his white-collar...
, which after a positive critical response but lower than expected box-office results, acquired a cult following. The film's notoriety heightened the profile of the novel and that of its author, Chuck Palahniuk.
History
The novel was inspired by an altercation Palahniuk once had while camping. Though he was bruised and swollen, his co-workers avoided asking him what had happened on the camping trip. Their reluctance to know what happened in his private life inspired the writing of
Fight Club.
Plot summary
An unnamed narrator works as a Product Recall Specialist for an unnamed car company. He is responsible for determining if
product recallA product recall is a request to return to the maker a batch or an entire production run of a product, usually due to the discovery of safety issues. The recall is an effort to limit liability for corporate negligence and to improve or avoid damage to publicity...
s of defective models meet
cost-benefit analysisCost-benefit analysis is a term that refers both to:* helping to appraise, or assess, the case for a project or proposal, which itself is a process known as project appraisal; and* an informal approach to making decisions of any kind....
. If the recall cost is less than the cost of out-of-court settlements, the recall goes forward. The stress of his job combined with his frequent business trips leads to perpetual
jet lagJet lag, also jetlag, medically referred to as "desynchronosis" is a physiological condition which is a consequence of alterations to circadian rhythms; it is classified as one of the circadian rhythm sleep disorders...
. He comes to recognize that his identity is imposed on him by his job and by his possessions and that he is not in control of his life. In particular, he becomes aware that his choices of housewares and furniture are meant to define him as a person.
At his doctor's - perhaps facetious - recommendation, the narrator attends a support group for men suffering from
testicular cancerTesticular cancer is cancer that develops in the testicles, a part of the male reproductive system.In the United States, between 7,500 and 8,000 diagnoses of testicular cancer are made each year. Over his lifetime, a man's risk of testicular cancer is roughly 1 in 250 . It is most common among...
, to "see what real suffering is like". He finds that crying and listening to the problems of others (including a former bodybuilder named Bob) cures his insomnia. This treatment works until he meets another impersonator, Marla Singer.
The possibly disturbed Marla reflects the narrator's "tourism", reminding him that he is a faker and does not belong there. He begins to hate Marla for keeping him from crying, and, therefore, from sleeping. After a confrontation, they agree to attend separate support group meetings to avoid each other. The truce is uneasy, however, and the narrator's insomnia returns.
Soon, he happens to meet Tyler Durden, a charismatic sociopath of mysterious means. After an explosion destroys the narrator's condominium, he asks to stay at Tyler's house. Tyler agrees, but asks for something in return: "I want you to hit me as hard as you can".
Following the fight, they move in together and expand their fight circle. Countless men with similar temperaments congregate in basements where they engage in
bare-knuckleBare-knuckle boxing is the original form of boxing closely related to ancient combat sports...
fighting, set to rules:
Later in the book, the mechanic tells the narrator two new rules of the fight club. The first new rule is that nobody is the center of the fight club except for the two men fighting. The second new rule is that the fight club will always be free.
After Marla calls the narrator, Tyler rescues Marla from a suicide attempt. Tyler and Marla embark on an uneasy affair that confounds the narrator and confuses Marla. Throughout this affair, Marla is unaware of the existence of fight club and completely unaware of Tyler and the narrator's interaction with one another. Because Tyler and Marla are never seen at the same time, the narrator wonders if Tyler and Marla are the same person.
As the fight club's membership grows (and, unbeknownst to the narrator, spreads to other cities across the country), Tyler begins to use it to spread anti-consumerist ideas and recruits its members to participate in increasingly elaborate pranks on
corporate AmericaCorporate America is an informal phrase describing the world of corporations within the United States not under government ownership. Its negative connotations imply financial or ideological self-interest, greed, resistance to entitlements and the irresponsible promotion of counter-socialist...
. This was originally the narrator's idea, but Tyler takes control from him. Tyler eventually gathers the most devoted fight club members (referred to as "
space monkeysBefore humans went into space, several animals were launched into space, including numerous monkeys, to investigate the biological effects of space travel. The United States launched monkey flights primarily between 1948-1961 with one flight in 1969 and one in 1985. France launched two monkey space...
") and forms "Project Mayhem," a
cultCult may popularly refer to a religious group with relatively few adherents whose beliefs or practices are regarded by others as strange or sinister.The term "cult" was originally used to denote a system of ritual practices...
-like organization that trains itself as an army to bring down modern civilization. This organization, like fight club, is controlled by a set of rules:
The narrator starts off as a loyal participant in Project Mayhem, seeing it as the next step for fight club. However, he becomes uncomfortable with the increasing destructiveness of their activities after it results in the death of Bob.
As the narrator endeavors to stop Tyler and his followers,
he learnsAnagnorisis is a moment in a play or other work when a character makes a critical discovery. Anagnorisis originally meant recognition in its Greek context, not only of a person but also of what that person stood for...
that he is Tyler; Tyler is not a separate person, but a
separate personalityDissociative identity disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a condition in which a single person displays multiple distinct identities or personalities , each with its own pattern of perceiving and interacting with the environment...
. As the narrator's mental state deteriorated, his mind formed a new personality that was able to escape from the problems of his reality. Marla inadvertently reveals to the narrator that he and Tyler are the same person. Tyler's affair with Marla (whom the narrator professes to dislike) was actually his own affair with Marla.
The narrator's bouts of insomnia had actually been Tyler's personality surfacing. Tyler would be active whenever the narrator was "sleeping." The Tyler personality not only created fight club, but also blew up the condo.
The narrator also learns that Tyler plans to blow up the Parker-Morris building (the fictional "tallest building in the world") using homemade bombs created by Project Mayhem. The actual reason for the explosion is to destroy the nearby national museum. During the explosion, Tyler plans to die as a
martyrA martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for refusing to renounce a belief, usually religious.-Meaning:...
for Project Mayhem, taking the narrator's life as well. Realizing this, the narrator sets out to stop Tyler, although Tyler is always thinking ahead of him. In his attempts to stop Tyler, he makes peace with Marla (who has always known the narrator as Tyler) and explains to her that he is not Tyler Durden. The narrator is eventually forced to confront Tyler on the roof of the building. The narrator is held captive at gunpoint by Tyler, forced to watch the destruction wrought on the museum by Project Mayhem. Marla comes to the roof with one of the support groups. Tyler vanishes, as "Tyler was his hallucination, not hers."
With Tyler gone, the narrator waits for the bomb to explode and kill him. However, the bomb malfunctions because Tyler mixed
paraffinIn chemistry, paraffin is the common name for the alkane hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. Paraffin wax refers to the solids with 20 ≤ n ≤ 40 ....
into the explosives, which the narrator says early in the book "has never, ever worked for me." Still alive and holding the gun that Tyler used to carry on him, the narrator decides to make the first decision that is truly his own: he puts the gun in his mouth and shoots himself. Some time later, he awakens in a hospital, believing that he is dead and has gone to heaven. The book ends with members of Project Mayhem who work at the institution telling the narrator that their plans still continue, and that they are expecting Tyler to come back.
Narrator
An employee specializing in recalls for an unnamed car company, he is extremely depressed and suffers from insomnia. The narrator in
Fight Club is unnamed throughout the novel. Some readers call him "Joe" because of his constant use of the name in statements such as "I am Joe's boiling point". The quotes "I am Joe's (blank)" refer to the narrator's reading old
Reader's DigestReader's Digest is a monthly general-interest family magazine co-founded in 1922 by Lila Bell Wallace and DeWitt Wallace, and based in Chappaqua, New York, United States of America...
articles in which human organs write about themselves in the first person, with titles such as "I Am Joe's Liver". The film adaptation replaces "Joe" with "Jack", inspiring some fans to call the narrator "Jack". In the novel and film, he uses fake names in the support groups. (In the film, Bob calls him "Cornelius" on the street after his testicular cancer pseudonym.)
Tyler Durden
A charismatic but
nihilisticNihilism is the philosophical doctrine suggesting the negation of one or more aspects of life or the world in general. Most commonly, nihilism is presented in the form of existential nihilism which argues that life is without objective meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value...
neo-Luddite and
anarcho-primitivistAnarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. According to anarcho-primitivism, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion, and alienation...
with a strong hatred for consumer culture. "Because of his nature," Tyler works night jobs where he causes problems for the companies; he also makes soap to supplement his income and create the ingredients for his bomb making which will be put to work later with his fight club. He is the co-founder of fight club (it was his idea to have the fight that led to it). He later launches Project Mayhem, from which he and the members make various attacks on consumerism. Tyler is blond, as by the narrator's comment "in his everything-blond way". He frequently describes (and acts on) his opposition to
mass societyMass society is a description associated with society in the modern, industrial era. Descriptions of society as a "mass" took form in the 19th century, referring to the leveling tendencies in the period of the Industrial Revolution that undermined traditional and aristocratic values...
,
materialismThe philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that exists is matter; that all things are composed of material and all phenomena are the result of material interactions. In other words, matter is the only substance. As a theory, materialism is a form of physicalism and belongs to the...
,
propertyProperty is any physical or intangible entity that is owned by a person or jointly by a group of persons. Depending on the nature of the property, an owner of property has the right to consume, sell, rent, mortgage, transfer, exchange or destroy his or her property, and/or to exclude others from...
,
capitalismCapitalism is an economic and social system in which the means of production are privately controlled; labor, goods and capital are traded in a market; profits are distributed to owners or invested in technologies and industries; and wages are paid to labor...
, and almost all
technologyTechnology is a broad concept that deals with human as well as other animal species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment...
and
social orderSocial order is a concept used in sociology, history and other social sciences. It refers to a set of linked social structures, social institutions and social practices which conserve, maintain and enforce "normal" ways of relating and behaving....
. He even vows to annihilate
civilizationA civilization is a complex society or culture group characterized by dependence upon agriculture, long-distance trade, state form of government, occupational specialization, population, and class stratification.-Definition:...
itself. He describes his ideal world as a neo-
paleolithicThe Paleolithic or Palaeolithic Age, Era, or Period, or Old Stone Age, is a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of the first stone tools, and covers roughly 99% of human technological history...
paradise, in
post-apocalypticApocalyptic fiction is a sub-genre of science fiction that is concerned with the end of civilization either through nuclear war, plague, or some other general disaster. Post-apocalyptic fiction is set in a world or civilization after such a disaster...
urban ruins. The unhinged but magnetic Tyler could also be considered an antihero (especially since he and the narrator are technically the same person). However, he becomes the
antagonistAn antagonist is a character, group of characters, or an institution, who represents the opposition against which the protagonist must contend...
of the novel later in the story. Few characters like Tyler have appeared in later novels by Palahniuk, though the character of Oyster from
LullabyLullaby is a horror-satire novel by American author Chuck Palahniuk, published in 2002. It won the 2003 Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Award, and was nominated for the Bram Stoker Award for Best Novel in 2002.-Background:...
shares many similarities and the title character of
RantRant: An Oral Biography of Buster Casey is a novel by Chuck Palahniuk released on May 1, 2007.Rant is told in the form of an oral biography. When the story begins, the reader discovers that the main character, Buster Landru "Rant" Casey, is already deceased...
shares some of his characteristics.
Marla Singer
A woman whom the narrator meets during a support group. The narrator no longer receives the same release from the groups when he realizes Marla is faking her problems just like he is. After he leaves the groups, he meets her again when she meets Tyler and becomes his lover. She shares many of Tyler's thoughts on consumer culture. In later novels by Palahniuk in which the protagonist is male, a female character similar to Marla has also appeared. Marla and these other female characters have helped Palahniuk to add romantic themes into his novels.
Robert "Bob" Paulson
A man that the narrator meets at a support group for
testicular cancerTesticular cancer is cancer that develops in the testicles, a part of the male reproductive system.In the United States, between 7,500 and 8,000 diagnoses of testicular cancer are made each year. Over his lifetime, a man's risk of testicular cancer is roughly 1 in 250 . It is most common among...
. A former
bodybuilderBodybuilding is a form of body modification involving intensive muscle hypertrophy; an individual who engages in this activity is referred to as a bodybuilder. In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders display their physiques to a panel of judges, who assign points based on their appearance...
, Bob lost his testicles to cancer caused by the steroids he used to bulk up his muscles and had to undergo testosterone injections; this resulted in his body increasing its
estrogenEstrogens are a group of steroid compounds, named for their importance in the estrous cycle, and functioning as the primary female sex hormone, their name comes from estrus/oistros + gen/gonos = to generate.Estrogens are used as part of some oral contraceptives, in estrogen replacement...
, causing him to grow large "
Bitch TitsGynecomastia, , is the development of abnormally large mammary glands in males resulting in breast enlargement. The term comes from the Greek γυνή gyne meaning "woman" and μαστός mastos meaning "breast"...
" and develop a softer voice. Because of this, Bob is the only known member that is allowed to wear a shirt (breaking the sixth rule of Fight Club). The narrator befriends Bob and, after leaving the groups, meets him again in fight club. Bob's death later in the story while carrying out an assignment for Project Mayhem causes the narrator to turn against Tyler, because the members of Project Mayhem treat it as a trivial matter instead of a tragedy. When the narrator explains that the dead man had a name and was a real person, a member of Project Mayhem interprets this as an order to give all those who died names. The unnamed member begins chanting "his name is Robert Paulson", and this phrase becomes a mantra that the narrator encounters later on in the story multiple times. The movie differs from the book in that it only states that people in other fight clubs were chanting "His name is Robert Paulson" for the same reason as mentioned above. When the narrator goes to a fight club to shut it down for this reason, Tyler orders them to make him a "homework assignment".
Motifs
At two points in the novel, the narrator claims he wants to "wipe [his] ass with the
Mona LisaMona Lisa is a 16th century portrait painted in oil on a poplar panel by Leonardo da Vinci during the Italian Renaissance. The work is owned by the Government of France and is on the wall in the Louvre in Paris, France with the title Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo...
"; a mechanic who joins fight club also repeats this to him in one scene. This motif shows his desire for chaos, later explicitly expressed in his urge to "destroy something beautiful". Additionally, he mentions at one point that "Nothing is static. Even the Mona Lisa is falling apart." University of Calgary literary scholar Paul Kennett claims that this want for chaos is a result of an
Oedipus complexThe Oedipus complex, in psychoanalytic theory, is a group of largely unconscious ideas and feelings which centre around the desire to possess the parent of the opposite sex and eliminate the parent of the same sex....
, as the narrator, Tyler, and the mechanic all show disdain for their fathers. This is most explicitly stated in the scene that the mechanic appears in:
Kennett further argues that Tyler wants to use this chaos to change history so that "God's middle children" will have some historical significance, whether or not this significance is "damnation or redemption". This will figuratively return their absent fathers, as judgment by future generations will replace judgment by their fathers.
After reading
Reader's Digest articles written from the perspective of the organs of a man named Joe, the narrator begins using similar quotations to describe his feelings, often replacing organs with feelings and things involved in his life.
The color
cornflower blueCornflower blue, a shade of azure, is a shade of light blue with relatively little green compared to blue.Cornflowers are among the few "blue" flowers that are truly blue, most "blue" flowers being a darker blue-purple....
first appears as the color of the narrator's boss's tie and later is requested as an icon color by the same boss. Later, it is mentioned that his boss has eyes of the same color. These mentions of the color are the first of many uses of cornflower blue in Palahniuk's books.
Isolationism, specifically directed towards material items and possessions, is a common theme throughout the novel. Tyler acts as the major catalyst behind the destruction of our vanities, which he claims is the path to finding our inner-selves. "I'm breaking my attachment to physical power and possessions," Tyler whispered, "because only through destroying myself can I discover the greater power of my spirit."
Themes
Much of the novel comments on how many men in modern society have found dissatisfaction with the state of masculinity as it currently exists. The characters of the novel lament the fact that many of them were raised by their mothers because their fathers either abandoned their family or divorced their mothers. As a result, they see themselves as being "a generation of men raised by women," being without a male role model in their lives to help shape their masculinity. This ties in with the anti-consumer culture theme, as the men in the novel see their "IKEA nesting instinct" as resulting from the feminization of men in a matriarchal culture.
Maryville University of St. Louis professor Jesse Kavadlo, in an issue of the literary journal
Stirrings Still, claimed that the narrator's opposition to emasculation is a form of projection, and that the problem that he fights is himself. He also claims that Palahniuk uses
existentialismLike “rationalism” and “empiricism,” “existentialism” is a term that belongs to intellectual history. Its definition is thus to some extent one of historical convenience...
in the novel to conceal subtexts of
feminismThe term Feminism can be used to describe an academic discourse, or to describe a political, cultural or economic movement aimed at establishing more rights and legal protection for women...
and romance in order to convey these concepts in a novel that is mainly aimed at a male audience.
Palahniuk himself gives a much simpler assertion about the theme of the novel, stating "all my books are about a lonely person looking for some way to connect with other people."
Paul Kennett claims that, because the narrator's fights with Tyler are fights with himself, and because he fights himself in front of his boss at the hotel, the narrator is using the fights as a way of asserting himself as his own boss. He argues that these fights are a representation of the struggle of the
proletarianThe proletariat is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is proletarian. Originally it was identified as those people who had no wealth other than their sons...
at the hands of a higher capitalist power, and by asserting himself as capable of having the same power he thus becomes his own master. Later, when fight club is formed, the participants are all dressed and groomed similarly, thus allowing them to symbolically fight themselves at the club and gain the same power.
Afterwards, Kennett says, Tyler becomes nostalgic for the patriarchical power controlling him, and creates Project Mayhem to achieve this. Through this proto-fascist power structure, the narrator seeks to learn "what, or rather, who, he might have been under a firm patriarchy." Through his position as leader of Project Mayhem, Tyler uses his power to become a "God/Father" to the "space monkeys", who are the other members of Project Mayhem (although by the end of the novel his words hold more power than he does, as is evident in the space monkeys' threat to castrate the narrator when he contradicts Tyler's rule). According to Kennett, this creates a paradox in that Tyler pushes the idea that men who wish to be free from a controlling father-figure are only self-actualized once they have children and become a father themselves. This new structure is, however, ended by the narrator's elimination of Tyler, allowing him to decide for himself how to determine his freedom.
Awards
The novel won the following awards:
- the 1997 Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Award
- the 1997 Oregon Book Award
The Oregon Book Awards are presented annually by Literary Arts, Inc. for "the finest accomplishments by Oregon writers who work in genres of poetry, fiction, literary nonfiction, drama and young readers literature." -History:...
for Best Novel
U.S. editions
- New York: W. W. Norton & Company, August 1996. Hardcover
A hardcover, hardback or hardbound is a book bound with rigid protective covers...
first edition. ISBN 0-393-03976-5
- New York: Owl Books
Verlagsgruppe Georg von Holtzbrinck is a Stuttgart-based publishing holding company which owns publishing companies worldwide. Holtzbrinck has published everything from Salman Rushdie's Satanic Verses to classics by Agatha Christie, Jean-Paul Sartre, Ernest Hemingway and John Updike.Newspapers...
, 1997. First trade paperback. ISBN 0-8050-5437-5
- New York: Owl Books, 1999. Trade paperback reissue (film tie-in cover). ISBN 0-8050-6297-1
- Minneapolis, MN: HighBridge Company, 1999. Unabridged audiobook on 4 cassettes, read by J. Todd Adams
J. Todd Adams is an American stage, film, and television actor who lives and works primarily in Southern California.Adams attended Brigham Young University where he was a student in the theater and film program. Some of his first professional roles were with the annual Utah Shakespearean Festival...
. ISBN 1-56511-330-6
- Minneapolis, MN: Tandem Books, 1999. School & library binding. ISBN 0-613-91882-7
- New York: Owl Books, 2004. Trade paperback reissue, with a new introduction by the author (bloody lip cover). ISBN 0-8050-7647-6
- New York: Owl Books, 2004. Trade paperback reissue, with a new introduction by the author (film tie-in cover). ISBN 0-8050-7655-7
- New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. Trade paperback (fist cover). ISBN 0-393-32734-5
- New York: Recorded Books LLC, 2008. Unabridged audiobook on 5 CDs, Read by James Colby. ISBN 978-1-4361-4960-0
See also
- Rewilding (anarchism)
Rewilding is the process of creating permanently wild human cultures beyond domestication. In green anarchism and anarcho-primitivism, humans are said to be "civilized" or "domesticated" by civilization. Supporters of such human rewilding argue that through the process of domestication, human...
- Revolution
A revolution is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time.Aristotle described two types of political revolution:...
- White Collar Boxing
White Collar Boxing is a form of boxing where men and women in white collar professions train to fight at special events. Most have no previous experience of boxing.-US origins of the sport:...
- 1996 in literature
The year 1996 in literature involved some significant events and new books.-Events:*Harper Lee's novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, is removed from an advanced placement English reading list in Lindale, Texas because it "conflicted with the values of the community."* In the United Kingdom, the first...
- Anarcho-primitivism
Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. According to anarcho-primitivism, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion, and alienation...
- Masculinity
Masculinity is manly character. It specifically describes men and boys, that is personal and human, unlike male which can also be used to describe animals, or masculine which can also be used to describe noun classes. When masculine is used to describe men, it can have degrees of comparison—more...
- Neo-Luddism
Neo-Luddism is a personal philosophy against technology.Neo-luddism is based on the historical legacy of the British Luddites which were active between 1811 and 1816...
- Transgressional fiction
Transgressive fiction is a genre of literature that focuses on characters who feel confined by the norms and expectations of society and who break free of those confines in unusual and/or illicit ways. Because they are rebelling against the basic norms of society, protagonists of transgressional...
- Dissociative identity disorder
Dissociative identity disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a condition in which a single person displays multiple distinct identities or personalities , each with its own pattern of perceiving and interacting with the environment...
- Hyperreality
In semiotics and postmodern philosophy, the term hyperreality characterizes the inability of consciousness to distinguish reality from fantasy, especially in technologically advanced postmodern cultures...
- Green Anarchism
Green anarchism is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental issues. An important early influence was the thought of the American individualist anarchist Henry David Thoreau and his book Walden. Some green anarchists can be described as anarcho-primitivists ,...
- Radical environmentalism
Radical environmentalism, is a grassroots branch of the larger environmental movement that emerged out of an ecocentrism-based frustration with the co-option of mainstream environmentalism...
External links