Insomnia is most often defined by an individual's report of sleeping difficulties. While the term is sometimes used in
sleepSleep is a naturally recurring state characterized by reduced or absent consciousness, relatively suspended sensory activity, and inactivity of nearly all voluntary muscles. It is distinguished from quiet wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, and is more easily reversible than...
literature to describe a
disorderA sleep disorder, or somnipathy, is a medical disorder of the sleep patterns of a person or animal. Some sleep disorders are serious enough to interfere with normal physical, mental and emotional functioning...
demonstrated by polysomnographic evidence of disturbed sleep, insomnia is often defined as a positive response to either of two questions: "Do you experience difficulty sleeping?" or "Do you have difficulty falling or staying asleep?"
Thus, insomnia is most often thought of as both a sign and a symptom that can accompany several sleep, medical, and psychiatric disorders, characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep and/or staying asleep or sleep of poor quality. Insomnia is typically followed by functional impairment while awake. One definition of insomnia is difficulties initiating and/or maintaining sleep, or nonrestorative sleep, associated with impairments of daytime functioning or marked distress for more than 1 month."
Insomnia can be grouped into primary and secondary, or comorbid, insomnia. Primary insomnia is a
sleep disorderA sleep disorder, or somnipathy, is a medical disorder of the sleep patterns of a person or animal. Some sleep disorders are serious enough to interfere with normal physical, mental and emotional functioning...
not attributable to a medical, psychiatric, or environmental cause. A complete diagnosis will differentiate between:
- insomnia as secondary to another condition,
- primary insomnia co-morbid with one or more conditions, or
- free-standing primary insomnia.
Types of insomnia
Insomnia can be classified as transient, acute, or chronic.
- Transient insomnia lasts for less than a week. It can be caused by another disorder, by changes in the sleep environment, by the timing of sleep, severe depression, or by stress
Stress is a term in psychology and biology, borrowed from physics and engineering and first used in the biological context in the 1930s, which has in more recent decades become commonly used in popular parlance...
. Its consequences – sleepiness and impaired psychomotor performance – are similar to those of sleep deprivationSleep deprivation is the condition of not having enough sleep; it can be either chronic or acute. A chronic sleep-restricted state can cause fatigue, daytime sleepiness, clumsiness and weight loss or weight gain. It adversely affects the brain and cognitive function. Few studies have compared the...
.
- Acute
In medicine, an acute disease is a disease with either or both of:# a rapid onset, as in acute infection# a short course ....
insomnia is the inability to consistently sleep well for a period of less than a month.Insomnia is present when there is difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep or when the sleep that is obtained is non-refreshing or of poor quality. These problems occur despite adequate opportunity and circumstances for sleep and they must result in problems with daytime function.
- Chronic insomnia lasts for longer than a month. It can be caused by another disorder, or it can be a primary disorder. People with high levels of stress hormones or shifts in the levels of cytokines are more likely to have Chronic insomnia. Its effects can vary according to its causes. They might include muscular fatigue, hallucinations, and/or mental fatigue. Some people that live with this disorder see things as if they are happening in slow motion, wherein moving objects seem to blend together. Chronic insomnia can cause double vision
Diplopia, commonly known as double vision, is the simultaneous perception of two images of a single object that may be displaced horizontally, vertically, or diagonally in relation to each other...
.
Sleep-onset insomnia
- When a person has difficulty falling asleep at the beginning of the night. This is often a symptom of anxiety disorder
Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal and pathological fear and anxiety. Conditions now considered anxiety disorders only came under the aegis of psychiatry at the end of the 19th century. Gelder, Mayou & Geddes explains that anxiety disorders are...
s or the delayed sleep phase disorderDelayed sleep-phase syndrome , also known as delayed sleep-phase disorder or delayed sleep-phase type , is a circadian rhythm sleep disorder, a chronic disorder of the timing of sleep, peak period of alertness, the core body temperature rhythm, hormonal and other daily rhythms, compared to the...
.
Nocturnal awakenings
- This is when a person has difficulty going back to sleep after awakening in the middle of the night. This may be a symptom of pain disorder
Pain disorder is when a patient experiences chronic pain in one or more areas, and is thought to be caused by psychological stress. The pain is often so severe that it disables the patient from proper functioning. Duration may be as short as a few days or as long as many years. The disorder may...
s or illness.
Waking too early in the morning
- Also known as middle-of-the-night insomnia
Middle-of-the-night insomnia is insomnia characterized by difficulty returning to sleep after awakening either in the middle of the night, or too early in the morning...
and terminal insomnia. This may be a symptom of clinical depression.
Poor sleep quality
Poor sleep quality can occur as a result of, for example, restless legs,
sleep apneaSleep apnea is a sleep disorder characterized by abnormal pauses in breathing or instances of abnormally low breathing, during sleep. Each pause in breathing, called an apnea, can last from a few seconds to minutes, and may occur 5 to 30 times or more an hour. Similarly, each abnormally low...
or major depression. Poor sleep quality is caused by the individual not reaching stage 3 or delta sleep which has restorative properties.
Major depression leads to alterations in the function of the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axisThe hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis , also known as thelimbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and, occasionally, as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-gonadotropic axis, is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland ,...
, causing excessive release of
cortisolCortisol is a steroid hormone, more specifically a glucocorticoid, produced by the adrenal gland. It is released in response to stress and a low level of blood glucocorticoids. Its primary functions are to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis; suppress the immune system; and aid in fat,...
which can lead to poor sleep quality.
Nocturnal
polyuriaPolyuria is a condition usually defined as excessive or abnormally large production or passage of urine . Frequent urination is sometimes included by definition, but is nonetheless usually an accompanying symptom...
, excessive nighttime urination, can be very disturbing to sleep.
Subjective insomnia
Some cases of insomnia are not really insomnia in the traditional sense. People experiencing
sleep state misperceptionSleep state misperception is a term in the International Classification of Sleep Disorders most commonly used for people who mistakenly perceive their sleep as wakefulness, though it has been proposed that it be applied to those who severely overestimate their sleep time as well...
often sleep for normal durations, yet severely overestimate the time taken to fall asleep. They may believe they slept for only four hours while they, in fact, slept a full eight hours.
Causes and co-morbidities
Symptoms of insomnia can be caused by or can be co-morbid with:
- Use of psychoactive drug
A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, or psychotropic is a chemical substance that crosses the blood–brain barrier and acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it affects brain function, resulting in changes in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, and behavior...
s (such as stimulantStimulants are psychoactive drugs which induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical function or both. Examples of these kinds of effects may include enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion, among others...
s), including certain medications, herbs, caffeineCaffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that acts as a stimulant drug. Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the seeds, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants...
, nicotineNicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants that constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of the dry weight of tobacco, with biosynthesis taking place in the roots and accumulation occurring in the leaves...
, cocaineCocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system, an appetite suppressant, and a topical anesthetic...
, amphetamineAmphetamine or amfetamine is a psychostimulant drug of the phenethylamine class which produces increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite.Brand names of medications that contain, or metabolize into, amphetamine include Adderall, Dexedrine, Dextrostat,...
s, methylphenidateMethylphenidate is a psychostimulant drug approved for treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome and narcolepsy. It may also be prescribed for off-label use in treatment-resistant cases of lethargy, depression, neural insult and obesity...
, aripiprazoleAripiprazole is an atypical antipsychotic and antidepressant used in the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and clinical depression...
, MDMA, modafinilModafinil is an analeptic drug manufactured by Cephalon, and is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of narcolepsy, shift work sleep disorder, and excessive daytime sleepiness associated with obstructive sleep apnea...
, or excessive alcohol intake.
- Use of fluoroquinolone antibiotic drugs, see fluoroquinolone toxicity, associated with more severe and chronic types of insomnia
- Restless Legs Syndrome
Restless legs syndrome or Willis-Ekbom disease is a neurological disorder characterized by an irresistible urge to move one's body to stop uncomfortable or odd sensations. It most commonly affects the legs, but can affect the arms, torso, and even phantom limbs...
, which can cause sleep onset insomnia due to the discomforting sensations felt and the need to move the legs or other body parts to relieve these sensations.
- Periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD), which occurs during sleep and can cause arousals that the sleeper is unaware of.
- Pain
Pain is an unpleasant sensation often caused by intense or damaging stimuli such as stubbing a toe, burning a finger, putting iodine on a cut, and bumping the "funny bone."...
An injury or condition that causes pain can preclude an individual from finding a comfortable position in which to fall asleep, and can in addition cause awakening.
- Hormone
A hormone is a chemical released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. In essence, it is a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one...
shifts such as those that precede menstruationMenstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining . It occurs on a regular basis in sexually reproductive-age females of certain mammal species. This article focuses on human menstruation.-Overview:...
and those during menopauseMenopause is a term used to describe the permanent cessation of the primary functions of the human ovaries: the ripening and release of ova and the release of hormones that cause both the creation of the uterine lining and the subsequent shedding of the uterine lining...
- Life events such as fear
Fear is a distressing negative sensation induced by a perceived threat. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific stimulus, such as pain or the threat of danger...
, stress, anxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
, emotional or mental tension, work problems, financial stress, birth of a child and bereavement.
- Mental disorders such as bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder or bipolar affective disorder, historically known as manic–depressive disorder, is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated energy levels, cognition, and mood with or without one or...
, clinical depressionMajor depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and by loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
, generalized anxiety disorder, post traumatic stress disorder, schizophreniaSchizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by a disintegration of thought processes and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests itself as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is accompanied by significant social...
, obsessive compulsive disorder, or dementiaDementia is a serious loss of cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired person, beyond what might be expected from normal aging...
.
- Disturbances of the circadian rhythm
A circadian rhythm, popularly referred to as body clock, is an endogenously driven , roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed in plants, animals, fungi and cyanobacteria...
, such as shift workShift work is an employment practice designed to make use of the 24 hours of the clock. The term "shift work" includes both long-term night shifts and work schedules in which employees change or rotate shifts....
and jet lagJet lag, medically referred to as desynchronosis, is a physiological condition which results from alterations to the body's circadian rhythms; it is classified as one of the circadian rhythm sleep disorders...
, can cause an inability to sleep at some times of the day and excessive sleepiness at other times of the day. Chronic circadian rhythm disordersCircadian rhythm sleep disorders are a family of sleep disorders affecting, among other things, the timing of sleep. People with circadian rhythm sleep disorders are unable to sleep and wake at the times required for normal work, school, and social needs. They are generally able to get enough sleep...
are characterized by similar symptoms.
- Certain neurological
Neurology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Specifically, it deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue,...
disorders, brain lesion"Brain damage" or "brain injury" is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. Brain injuries occur due to a wide range of internal and external factors...
s, or a historyThe medical history or anamnesis of a patient is information gained by a physician by asking specific questions, either of the patient or of other people who know the person and can give suitable information , with the aim of obtaining information useful in formulating a diagnosis and providing...
of traumatic brain injuryTraumatic brain injury , also known as intracranial injury, occurs when an external force traumatically injures the brain. TBI can be classified based on severity, mechanism , or other features...
- Medical conditions
A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune...
such as hyperthyroidismHyperthyroidism is the term for overactive tissue within the thyroid gland causing an overproduction of thyroid hormones . Hyperthyroidism is thus a cause of thyrotoxicosis, the clinical condition of increased thyroid hormones in the blood. Hyperthyroidism and thyrotoxicosis are not synonymous...
and rheumatoid arthritisRheumatoid arthritis is a chronic, systemic inflammatory disorder that may affect many tissues and organs, but principally attacks synovial joints. The process produces an inflammatory response of the synovium secondary to hyperplasia of synovial cells, excess synovial fluid, and the development...
- Abuse of over-the counter or prescription sleep aids (sedative
A sedative or tranquilizer is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement....
or depressantA depressant, or central depressant, is a drug or endogenous compound that depresses the function or activity of a specific part of the brain...
drugs) can produce rebound insomnia
- Poor sleep hygiene
Sleep hygiene can be defined as the controlling of "all behavioural and environmental factors that precede sleep and may interfere with sleep." It is the practice of following guidelines in an attempt to ensure more restful, effective sleep which can promote daytime alertness and help treat or...
, e.g., noiseNoise health effects are the health consequences of elevated sound levels. Elevated workplace or other noise can cause hearing impairment, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, annoyance and sleep disturbance. Changes in the immune system and birth defects have been attributed to noise exposure...
- Parasomnia
For the 2008 horror film, see Parasomnia Parasomnias are a category of sleep disorders that involve abnormal and unnatural movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, and dreams that occur while falling asleep, sleeping, between sleep stages, or during arousal from sleep...
s, which include such disruptive sleep events as nightmares, sleepwalkingSleepwalking, also known as somnambulism, is a sleep disorder belonging to the parasomnia family. Sleepwalkers arise from the slow wave sleep stage in a state of low consciousness and perform activities that are usually performed during a state of full consciousness...
, night terrors, violent behavior while sleeping, and REM behavior disorderRapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder is a sleep disorder that involves abnormal behaviour during the sleep phase with rapid eye movement . It was first described in 1986....
, in which the physical body moves in response to events within dreams
- A rare genetic condition can cause a prion
A prion is an infectious agent composed of protein in a misfolded form. This is in contrast to all other known infectious agents which must contain nucleic acids . The word prion, coined in 1982 by Stanley B. Prusiner, is a portmanteau derived from the words protein and infection...
-based, permanent and eventually fatal form of insomnia called fatal familial insomniaFatal familial insomnia is a very rare autosomal dominant inherited prion disease of the brain. It is almost always caused by a mutation to the protein PrPC, but can also develop spontaneously in patients with a non-inherited mutation variant called sporadic fatal insomnia...
.
- Physical exercise
Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. It is performed for various reasons including strengthening muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, as well as for the purpose of...
. Exercise-induced insomnia is common in athletes, causing prolonged sleep onset latencyIn sleep science, sleep onset latency is the length of time that it takes to accomplish the transition from full wakefulness to sleep, normally to the lightest of the non-REM sleep stages.-Sleep latency studies:...
.
Sleep studies using
polysomnographyPolysomnography , also known as a sleep study, is a multi-parametric test used in the study of sleep and as a diagnostic tool in sleep medicine. The test result is called a polysomnogram, also abbreviated PSG...
have suggested that people who have sleep disruption have elevated nighttime levels of circulating
cortisolCortisol is a steroid hormone, more specifically a glucocorticoid, produced by the adrenal gland. It is released in response to stress and a low level of blood glucocorticoids. Its primary functions are to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis; suppress the immune system; and aid in fat,...
and
adrenocorticotropic hormoneAdrenocorticotropic hormone , also known as 'corticotropin', 'Adrenocorticotrophic hormone', is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological...
They also have an elevated metabolic rate, which does not occur in people who do not have insomnia but whose sleep is intentionally disrupted during a sleep study. Studies of brain metabolism using
positron emission tomography (PET) scansPositron emission tomography is nuclear medicine imaging technique that produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide , which is introduced into the body on a...
indicate that people with insomnia have higher metabolic rates by night and by day. The question remains whether these changes are the causes or consequences of long-term insomnia.
A common misperception is that the amount of sleep required decreases as a person ages. The ability to sleep for long periods, rather than the need for sleep, appears to be lost as people get older. Some elderly insomniacs toss and turn in bed and occasionally fall off the bed at night, diminishing the amount of sleep they receive.
Eluned Summers-Bremner further discusses various modes of insomnia in his book 'Insomnia: A Cultural History.'
Diagnosis
Specialists in
sleep medicineSleep medicine is a medical specialty or subspecialty devoted to the diagnosis and therapy of sleep disturbances and disorders. From the middle of the 20th century, research has provided increasing knowledge and answered many questions about sleep-wake functioning. The rapidly evolving field has...
are qualified to diagnose the many different sleep disorders. Patients with various disorders including
delayed sleep phase syndromeDelayed sleep-phase syndrome , also known as delayed sleep-phase disorder or delayed sleep-phase type , is a circadian rhythm sleep disorder, a chronic disorder of the timing of sleep, peak period of alertness, the core body temperature rhythm, hormonal and other daily rhythms, compared to the...
are often mis-diagnosed with primary insomnia. When a person has trouble getting to sleep, but has a normal sleep pattern once asleep, a circadian rhythm disorder is a likely cause.
In many cases, insomnia is co-morbid with another disease, side-effects from medications, or a psychological problem. Approximately half of all diagnosed insomnia is related to psychiatric disorders. In depression in many cases "insomnia should be regarded as a co-morbid condition, rather than as a secondary one;" insomnia typically predates psychiatric symptoms. "In fact, it is possible that insomnia represents a significant risk for the development of a subsequent psychiatric disorder."
Knowledge of causation is not necessary for a diagnosis.
Treatment
It is important to identify or rule out medical and psychological causes before deciding on the treatment for insomnia. Attention to
sleep hygieneSleep hygiene can be defined as the controlling of "all behavioural and environmental factors that precede sleep and may interfere with sleep." It is the practice of following guidelines in an attempt to ensure more restful, effective sleep which can promote daytime alertness and help treat or...
is an important first line treatment strategy and should be tried before any pharmacological approach is considered. Pharmacological treatments have been used mainly to reduce symptoms in acute insomnia; their role in the management of chronic insomnia remains unclear.
Non-pharmacological
Non-pharmacological strategies are superior to
hypnoticHypnotic drugs are a class of psychoactives whose primary function is to induce sleep and to be used in the treatment of insomnia and in surgical anesthesia...
medication for insomnia because tolerance develops to the
hypnoticHypnotic drugs are a class of psychoactives whose primary function is to induce sleep and to be used in the treatment of insomnia and in surgical anesthesia...
effects. In addition,
dependenceThe section about substance dependence in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not use the word addiction at all. It explains:...
can develop with rebound withdrawal effects developing upon discontinuation. Hypnotic medication is therefore only recommended for short-term use, especially in acute or chronic insomnia. Non pharmacological strategies however, have long lasting improvements to insomnia and are recommended as a first line and long term strategy of managing insomnia. The strategies include attention to
sleep hygieneSleep hygiene can be defined as the controlling of "all behavioural and environmental factors that precede sleep and may interfere with sleep." It is the practice of following guidelines in an attempt to ensure more restful, effective sleep which can promote daytime alertness and help treat or...
,
stimulus controlStimulus control is the phenomenon of a stimulus increasing the probability of a behavior because of a history of that behavior being differentially reinforced in the presence of the stimulus...
, behavioral interventions, sleep-restriction therapy,
paradoxical intentionIn psychotherapy, paradoxical intention is the deliberate practice of a neurotic habit or thought, undertaken in order to identify and remove it....
, patient education and relaxation therapy. Reducing the temperature of blood flowing to the brain slows the brain's metabolic rate thereby reducing insomnia.
EEG biofeedback has demonstrated effectiveness in the treatment of insomnia with improvements in duration as well as quality of sleep.
Stimulus control therapy is a treatment for patients who have conditioned themselves to associate the bed, or sleep in general, with a negative response. As stimulus control therapy involves taking steps to control the sleep environment, it is sometimes referred interchangeably with the concept of sleep hygiene. Examples of such environmental modifications include using the bed for sleep or sex only, not for activities such as reading or watching television; waking up at the same time every morning, including on weekends; going to bed only when sleepy and when there is a high likelihood that sleep will occur; leaving the bed and beginning an activity in another location if sleep does not result in a reasonably brief period of time after getting into bed (commonly ~20 min); reducing the subjective effort and energy expended trying to fall asleep; avoiding exposure to bright light during nighttime hours, and eliminating daytime naps.
A component of stimulus control therapy is sleep restriction, a technique that aims to match the time spent in bed with actual time spent asleep. This technique involves maintaining a strict sleep-wake schedule, sleeping only at certain times of the day and for specific amounts of time to induce mild sleep deprivation. Complete treatment usually lasts up to 3 weeks and involves making oneself sleep for only a minimum amount of time that they are actually capable of on average, and then, if capable (i.e. when sleep efficiency improves), slowly increasing this amount (~15 min) by going to bed earlier as the body attempts to reset its internal sleep clock. Bright light therapy, which is often used to help early morning wakers reset their natural sleep cycle, can also be used with sleep restriction therapy to reinforce a new wake schedule. Although applying this technique with consistency is difficult, it can have a positive effect on insomnia in motivated patients.
Paradoxical intention is a cognitive reframing technique where the insomniac, instead of attempting to fall asleep at night, makes every effort to stay awake (i.e. essentially stops trying to fall asleep). One theory that may explain the effectiveness of this method is that by not voluntarily making oneself go to sleep, it relieves the performance anxiety that arises from the need or requirement to fall asleep, which is meant to be a passive act. This technique has been shown to reduce sleep effort and performance anxiety and also lower subjective assessment of sleep-onset latency and overestimation of the sleep deficit (a quality found in many insomniacs).
Meditation has been recommended for the treatment of insomnia. The renowned meditation teacher Siddhārtha Gautama, 'The Buddha', is recorded as having recommended the practice of 'loving-kindness' meditation, or mettā bhāvanā as a way to produce relaxation and thereby, sound sleep – putting it first in a list of the benefits of that meditation. More recently, studies have concluded that: a mindfulness practice reduced mental and bodily restlessness before sleep and the subjective symptoms of insomnia; and that mindfulness-based cognitive behavioural therapy reduced restlessness, sleep effort and dysfunctional sleep-related thoughts including worry.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia
A recent study found that
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for InsomniaCognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia is a method for treating insomnia without medications.-Stimulus control:Stimulus control aims to associate the bed with sleeping and limit its association with stimulating behavior...
(CBT-I) is more effective than hypnotic medications in controlling insomnia. In this therapy, patients are taught improved sleep habits and relieved of counter-productive assumptions about sleep. Common misconceptions and expectations that can be modified include: (1) unrealistic sleep expectations (e.g., I need to have 8 hours of sleep each night), (2) misconceptions about insomnia causes (e.g., I have a chemical imbalance causing my insomnia), (3) amplifying the consequences of insomnia (e.g., I cannot do anything after a bad night's sleep), and (4) performance anxiety after trying for so long to have a good night's sleep by controlling the sleep process. Numerous studies have reported positive outcomes of combining cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia treatment with treatments such as stimulus control and the relaxation therapies.
HypnoticHypnotic drugs are a class of psychoactives whose primary function is to induce sleep and to be used in the treatment of insomnia and in surgical anesthesia...
medications are equally effective in the short-term treatment of insomnia but their effects wear off over time due to tolerance. The effects of CBT-I have sustained and lasting effects on treating insomnia long after therapy has been discontinued. The addition of hypnotic medications with CBT-I adds no benefit in insomnia. The long lasting benefits of a course of CBT-I shows superiority over pharmacological hypnotic drugs. Even in the short term when compared to short-term hypnotic medication such as zolpidem (Ambien), CBT-I still shows significant superiority. Thus CBT-I is recommended as a first line treatment for insomnia.
Medications
Many insomniacs rely on sleeping tablets and other
sedativeA sedative or tranquilizer is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement....
s to get rest, with research showing that medications are prescribed to over 95% of insomniac cases. Certain classes of sedatives such as
benzodiazepineA benzodiazepine is a psychoactive drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring...
s and newer
nonbenzodiazepineThe nonbenzodiazepines, also called benzodiazepine-like drugs, are a class of psychoactive drugs pharmacologically resembling the benzodiazepines, with similar benefits, side effects and risks, despite having dissimilar or entirely different chemical structures.-Classes:There are currently three...
drugs can also cause
physical dependencePhysical dependence refers to a state resulting from chronic use of a drug that has produced tolerance and where negative physical symptoms of withdrawal result from abrupt discontinuation or dosage reduction...
, which manifests in withdrawal symptoms if the drug is not carefully tapered down. The
benzodiazepineA benzodiazepine is a psychoactive drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring...
and
nonbenzodiazepineThe nonbenzodiazepines, also called benzodiazepine-like drugs, are a class of psychoactive drugs pharmacologically resembling the benzodiazepines, with similar benefits, side effects and risks, despite having dissimilar or entirely different chemical structures.-Classes:There are currently three...
hypnoticHypnotic drugs are a class of psychoactives whose primary function is to induce sleep and to be used in the treatment of insomnia and in surgical anesthesia...
medications also have a number of side-effects such as day time fatigue, motor vehicle crashes, cognitive impairments and falls and fractures. Elderly people are more sensitive to these side-effects. The non-benzodiazepines zolpidem and zaleplon have not adequately demonstrated effectiveness in sleep maintenance. Some benzodiazepines have demonstrated effectiveness in sleep maintenance in the short term but in the longer term are associated with tolerance and
dependenceThe section about substance dependence in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not use the word addiction at all. It explains:...
. Drugs that may prove more effective and safer than existing drugs for insomnia are in development.
In comparing the options, a
systematic reviewA systematic review is a literature review focused on a research question that tries to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all high quality research evidence relevant to that question. Systematic reviews of high-quality randomized controlled trials are crucial to evidence-based medicine...
found that
benzodiazepineA benzodiazepine is a psychoactive drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring...
s and
nonbenzodiazepineThe nonbenzodiazepines, also called benzodiazepine-like drugs, are a class of psychoactive drugs pharmacologically resembling the benzodiazepines, with similar benefits, side effects and risks, despite having dissimilar or entirely different chemical structures.-Classes:There are currently three...
s have similar efficacy that is
not significantlyIn statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. The phrase test of significance was coined by Ronald Fisher....
more than for
antidepressantAn antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. According to Gelder, Mayou &*Geddes people with a depressive illness will experience a therapeutic effect to their mood;...
s. Benzodiazepines did not have a
significantIn statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. The phrase test of significance was coined by Ronald Fisher....
tendency for more
adverse drug reactionAn adverse drug reaction is an expression that describes harm associated with the use of given medications at a normal dosage. ADRs may occur following a single dose or prolonged administration of a drug or result from the combination of two or more drugs...
s. Chronic users of
hypnoticHypnotic drugs are a class of psychoactives whose primary function is to induce sleep and to be used in the treatment of insomnia and in surgical anesthesia...
medications for insomnia do not have better sleep than chronic insomniacs not taking medications. In fact, chronic users of hypnotic medications have more regular nighttime awakenings than insomniacs not taking hypnotic medications. A further review of the literature regarding benzodiazepine
hypnoticHypnotic drugs are a class of psychoactives whose primary function is to induce sleep and to be used in the treatment of insomnia and in surgical anesthesia...
as well as the nonbenzodiazepines concluded that these drugs cause an unjustifiable risk to the individual and to
public healthPublic health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals" . It is concerned with threats to health based on population health...
and lack evidence of long-term effectiveness. The risks include
dependenceThe section about substance dependence in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not use the word addiction at all. It explains:...
, accidents, and other adverse effects. Gradual discontinuation of hypnotics in long-term users leads to improved health without worsening of sleep. It is preferred that hypnotics be prescribed for only a few days at the lowest effective dose and avoided altogether wherever possible in the elderly.
Benzodiazepines
The most commonly used class of hypnotics prescribed for insomnia are the benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines all bind unselectively to the GABA
A receptor. But certain benzodiazepines (hypnotic benzodiazepines) have significantly higher activity at the α
1 subunit of the GABA
A receptor compared to other benzodiazepines (for example, triazolam and temazepam have significantly higher activity at the α
1 subunit compared to alprazolam and diazepam, making them superior sedative-hypnotics – alprazolam and diazepam in turn have higher activity at the α
2 subunit compared to triazolam and temazepam, making them superior anxiolytic agents). Modulation of the α
1 subunit is associated with sedation, motor-impairment, respiratory depression, amnesia, ataxia, and reinforcing behavior (drug-seeking behavior). Modulation of the α
2 subunit is associated with anxiolytic activity and disinhibition. For this reason, certain benzodiazepines are better suited to treat insomnia than others. Hypnotic benzodiazepines include drugs such as
temazepamTemazepam is an intermediate-acting 3-hydroxy benzodiazepine. It is mostly prescribed for the short-term treatment of sleeplessness in patients who have difficulty maintaining sleep...
,
flunitrazepamFlunitrazepam is marketed as a potent hypnotic, sedative, anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, amnestic, and skeletal muscle relaxant drug most commonly known as Rohypnol...
,
triazolamTriazolam is a benzodiazepine drug. It possesses pharmacological properties similar to that of other benzodiazepines, but it is generally only used as a sedative to treat severe insomnia...
,
flurazepamFlurazepam is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. It produces a metabolite with a very long half-life , which may stay in the bloodstream for up to four days...
,
midazolamMidazolam is a short-acting drug in the benzodiazepine class developed by Hoffmann-La Roche in the 1970s. The drug is used for treatment of acute seizures, moderate to severe insomnia, and for inducing sedation and amnesia before medical procedures. It possesses profoundly potent anxiolytic,...
,
nitrazepamNitrazepam is a type of benzodiazepine drug and is marketed in English-speaking countries under the following brand names: Alodorm, Arem, Insoma, Mogadon, Nitrados, Nitrazadon, Ormodon, Paxadorm, Remnos, and Somnite...
, and
quazepamQuazepam is a benzodiazepine derivative drug developed by the Schering Corporation in the 1970s. Quazepam is indicated for the treatment of insomnia including sleep induction and sleep maintenance...
. These drugs can lead to tolerance,
physical dependencePhysical dependence refers to a state resulting from chronic use of a drug that has produced tolerance and where negative physical symptoms of withdrawal result from abrupt discontinuation or dosage reduction...
, and the
benzodiazepine withdrawal syndromeBenzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome—often abbreviated to benzo withdrawal—is the cluster of symptoms which appear when a person who has taken benzodiazepines long term and has developed benzodiazepine dependence stops taking benzodiazepine drug or during dosage reductions...
upon discontinuation, especially after consistent usage over long periods of time. Benzodiazepines, while inducing unconsciousness, actually worsen sleep as they promote light sleep while decreasing time spent in deep sleep. A further problem is, with regular use of short-acting sleep aids for insomnia, daytime rebound anxiety can emerge. Benzodiazepines can help to initiate sleep and increase sleep time, but they also decrease deep sleep and increase light sleep. Although there is little evidence for benefit of benzodiazepines in insomnia and evidence of major harm, prescriptions have continued to increase. There is a general awareness that long-term use of benzodiazepines for insomnia in most people is inappropriate and that a gradual withdrawal is usually beneficial due to the adverse effects associated with the long-term use of benzodiazepines and is recommended whenever possible.
Non-benzodiazepines
NonbenzodiazepineThe nonbenzodiazepines, also called benzodiazepine-like drugs, are a class of psychoactive drugs pharmacologically resembling the benzodiazepines, with similar benefits, side effects and risks, despite having dissimilar or entirely different chemical structures.-Classes:There are currently three...
sedative-hypnotic drugs, such as
zolpidemZolpidem is a prescription medication used for the short-term treatment of insomnia, as well as some brain disorders. It is a short-acting nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic of the imidazopyridine class that potentiates gamma-aminobutyric acid , an inhibitory neurotransmitter, by binding to GABAA...
,
zaleplonZaleplon is a sedative/hypnotic, mainly used for insomnia. It is a nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic from the pyrazolopyrimidine class. In terms of adverse effects zaleplon appears to offer little improvement compared to both benzodiazepines and other non-benzodiazepine Z-drugs.Sonata is manufactured by...
,
zopicloneZopiclone is a non-benzodiazepine hypnotic agent used in the treatment of insomnia. In the United States, zopiclone is not commercially available, although its active stereoisomer, eszopiclone, is sold under the name Lunesta...
, and
eszopicloneEszopiclone, marketed by Sepracor under the brand-name Lunesta, is a nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic used as a treatment for insomnia. Eszopiclone is the active dextrorotatory stereoisomer of zopiclone, and belongs to the class of drugs known as cyclopyrrolones.Eszopiclone is a short acting...
, are a newer classification of hypnotic medications indicated for mild to moderate insomnia. They work on the benzodiazepine site on the GABA
A receptor complex similarly to the benzodiazepine class of drugs. Some but not all of the nonbenzodiazepines are selective for the α
1 subunit on GABA
A receptors, which is responsible for inducing sleep and may therefore have a cleaner side-effect profile than the older benzodiazepines. Zopiclone and eszopiclone like benzodiazepine drugs bind unselectively to α
1, α
2, α
3 and α
5 GABA
A benzodiazepine receptors. Zolpidem is more selective and zaleplon is highly selective for the α
1 subunit, thus giving them an advantage over benzodiazepines in terms of
sleep architectureSleep architecture describes the structure and pattern of sleep and encompasses several variables. Sleep quotas refer to the amount of time spent in REM and NREM sleep. Sleep duration is the total time spent asleep in a 24 hour period. The duration of a NREM-REM cycle is also an important aspect...
and a reduction in side-effects. The
nonbenzodiazepineThe nonbenzodiazepines, also called benzodiazepine-like drugs, are a class of psychoactive drugs pharmacologically resembling the benzodiazepines, with similar benefits, side effects and risks, despite having dissimilar or entirely different chemical structures.-Classes:There are currently three...
sedative-hypnotic drugs have milder activity at the α
1 subunit on GABA
A receptors compared to most benzodiazepines, rendering them ineffective for moderately severe to severe insomnia. However, there are controversies over whether these non-benzodiazepine drugs are superior to benzodiazepines. These drugs appear to cause both psychological dependence and
physical dependencePhysical dependence refers to a state resulting from chronic use of a drug that has produced tolerance and where negative physical symptoms of withdrawal result from abrupt discontinuation or dosage reduction...
, though less than traditional benzodiazepines and can also cause the same memory and cognitive disturbances along with morning sedation.
Alcohol
Alcohol is often used as a form of self-treatment of insomnia to induce sleep. However, alcohol use to induce sleep can be a cause of insomnia. Long-term use of alcohol is associated with a decrease in
NREMNon-rapid eye movement, or NREM is, collectively, sleep stages 1 – 3, previously known as stages 1 – 4. Rapid eye movement sleep is not included. There are distinct electroencephalographic and other characteristics seen in each stage. Unlike REM sleep, there is usually little or no eye movement...
stage 3 and 4 sleep as well as suppression of REM sleep and REM sleep fragmentation. Frequent moving between sleep stages occurs, with awakenings due to headaches,
the need to urinatePolyuria is a condition usually defined as excessive or abnormally large production or passage of urine . Frequent urination is sometimes included by definition, but is nonetheless usually an accompanying symptom...
,
dehydrationIn physiology and medicine, dehydration is defined as the excessive loss of body fluid. It is literally the removal of water from an object; however, in physiological terms, it entails a deficiency of fluid within an organism...
, and
excessive sweatingDiaphoresis is excessive sweating commonly associated with shock and other medical emergency conditions.Diaphoretic is the state of perspiring profusely, or something that has the power to cause increased perspiration....
. Glutamine rebound also plays a role as when someone is drinking; alcohol inhibits glutamine, one of the body's natural stimulants. When the person stops drinking, the body tries to make up for lost time by producing more glutamine than it needs.
The increase in glutamine levels stimulates the brain while the drinker is trying to sleep, keeping him/her from reaching the deepest levels of sleep. Stopping chronic alcohol use can also lead to severe insomnia with vivid dreams. During withdrawal REM sleep is typically exaggerated as part of a
rebound effectThe rebound effect, or rebound phenomenon, is the tendency of some medications, when discontinued suddenly, to cause a return of the symptoms it relieved, and that, to a degree stronger than they were before treatment first began...
.
Opioids
OpioidAn opioid is a psychoactive chemical that works by binding to opioid receptors, which are found principally in the central and peripheral nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract...
medications such as
hydrocodoneHydrocodone or dihydrocodeinone is a semi-synthetic opioid derived from either of two naturally occurring opiates: codeine and thebaine. It is an orally active narcotic analgesic and antitussive...
,
oxycodoneOxycodone is an opioid analgesic medication synthesized from opium-derived thebaine. It was developed in 1916 in Germany, as one of several new semi-synthetic opioids in an attempt to improve on the existing opioids: morphine, diacetylmorphine , and codeine.Oxycodone oral medications are generally...
, and
morphineMorphine is a potent opiate analgesic medication and is considered to be the prototypical opioid. It was first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, first distributed by same in 1817, and first commercially sold by Merck in 1827, which at the time was a single small chemists' shop. It was more...
are used for insomnia that is associated with
painPain is an unpleasant sensation often caused by intense or damaging stimuli such as stubbing a toe, burning a finger, putting iodine on a cut, and bumping the "funny bone."...
due to their
analgesicAn analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain . The word analgesic derives from Greek an- and algos ....
properties and
hypnoticHypnotic drugs are a class of psychoactives whose primary function is to induce sleep and to be used in the treatment of insomnia and in surgical anesthesia...
effects. Opioids can fragment sleep and decrease REM and stage 2 sleep. By producing analgesia and
sedationSedation is the reduction of irritability or agitation by administration of sedative drugs, generally to facilitate a medical procedure or diagnostic procedure...
, opioids may be appropriate in carefully selected patients with pain-associated insomnia.Though, dependence on opium can lead to suffering from long time disturbance in sleep .
Antidepressants
Some
antidepressantAn antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. According to Gelder, Mayou &*Geddes people with a depressive illness will experience a therapeutic effect to their mood;...
s such as
amitriptylineAmitriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant . It is the most widely used TCA and has at least equal efficacy against depression as the newer class of SSRIs...
,
doxepinDoxepin is a psychotropic agent with tricyclic antidepressant and anxiolytic properties, known under many brand-names such as Aponal, the original preparation by Boehringer-Mannheim, now part of the Roche group; Adapine, Doxal , Deptran, Sinquan and Sinequan...
,
mirtazapineMirtazapine is a tetracyclic antidepressant used primarily in the treatment of depression. It is also sometimes used as a hypnotic, antiemetic, and appetite stimulant, and for the treatment of anxiety, among other indications...
, and
trazodoneTrazodone is an antidepressant of the serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitor class. It is a phenylpiperazine compound...
can often have a very strong sedative effect, and are prescribed off label to treat insomnia. The major drawback of these drugs is that they have properties that can lead to many side-effects; for example, amitriptyline and doxepin both have antihistaminergic,
anticholinergicAn anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous system. An example of an anticholinergic is dicycloverine, and the classic example is atropine....
, and antiadrenergic properties, which contribute to their side-effect profile, while mirtazapines side-effects are primarily antihistaminergic, and trazadones side-effects are primarily antiadrenergic. Some also alter
sleep architectureSleep architecture describes the structure and pattern of sleep and encompasses several variables. Sleep quotas refer to the amount of time spent in REM and NREM sleep. Sleep duration is the total time spent asleep in a 24 hour period. The duration of a NREM-REM cycle is also an important aspect...
. As with benzodiazepines, the use of antidepressants in the treatment of insomnia can lead to
withdrawalWithdrawal can refer to any sort of separation, but is most commonly used to describe the group of symptoms that occurs upon the abrupt discontinuation/separation or a decrease in dosage of the intake of medications, recreational drugs, and alcohol...
effects; withdrawal may induce rebound insomnia.
MirtazapineMirtazapine is a tetracyclic antidepressant used primarily in the treatment of depression. It is also sometimes used as a hypnotic, antiemetic, and appetite stimulant, and for the treatment of anxiety, among other indications...
is known to decrease sleep latency, promoting sleep efficiency and increasing the total amount of sleeping time in patients suffering from both depression and insomnia.
Melatonin and melatonin agonists
The hormone
melatoninMelatonin , also known chemically as N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine, is a naturally occurring compound found in animals, plants, and microbes...
, sold as a "
dietary supplementA dietary supplement, also known as food supplement or nutritional supplement, is a preparation intended to supplement the diet and provide nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, or amino acids, that may be missing or may not be consumed in sufficient quantities in a person's diet...
" in some countries or as a slow-release prescription drug (Circadin) in Europe, is effective in several types of insomnia.
MelatoninMelatonin , also known chemically as N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine, is a naturally occurring compound found in animals, plants, and microbes...
has demonstrated effectiveness equivalent to the prescription sleeping tablet
zopicloneZopiclone is a non-benzodiazepine hypnotic agent used in the treatment of insomnia. In the United States, zopiclone is not commercially available, although its active stereoisomer, eszopiclone, is sold under the name Lunesta...
in inducing sleep and regulating the sleep/waking cycle. One particular benefit of melatonin is that it can treat insomnia without altering the sleep pattern, which is altered by many prescription sleeping tablets. Another benefit is it does not impair performance related skills.
Melatonin agonists, including
ramelteonRamelteon, marketed as Rozerem by Takeda Pharmaceuticals North America, is the first in a new class of sleep agents that selectively binds to the MT1 and MT2 receptors in the suprachiasmatic nucleus , instead of binding to GABA A receptors, such as with drugs like zolpidem, eszopiclone, and...
(Rozerem) and
tasimelteonTasimelteon is a drug which is under development for the treatment of insomnia and other sleep disorders. It is a selective agonist for the melatonin receptors MT1 and MT2 in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the brain, similar to older drugs such as ramelteon...
, seem to lack the potential for dependence. This class of drugs has a relatively mild side-effect profile and low likelihood of causing morning sedation. While these drugs show good effect for the treatment of insomnia due to
jet lagJet lag, medically referred to as desynchronosis, is a physiological condition which results from alterations to the body's circadian rhythms; it is classified as one of the circadian rhythm sleep disorders...
and the chronic circadian rhythm disorders, the results for other forms of insomnia are less promising.
Antihistamines
The
antihistamineAn H1 antagonist is a histamine antagonist of the H1 receptor that serves to reduce or eliminate effects mediated by histamine, an endogenous chemical mediator released during allergic reactions...
diphenhydramineDiphenhydramine hydrochloride is a first-generation antihistamine possessing anticholinergic, antitussive, antiemetic, and sedative properties which is mainly used to treat allergies. Like most other first-generation antihistamines, the drug also has a powerful hypnotic effect, and for this reason...
is widely used in nonprescription sleep aids such as Benadryl. The
antihistamineAn H1 antagonist is a histamine antagonist of the H1 receptor that serves to reduce or eliminate effects mediated by histamine, an endogenous chemical mediator released during allergic reactions...
doxylamineDoxylamine is one of the many sedating antihistamines used by itself as a short-term sedative, and in combination with other drugs as a night-time cold and allergy relief drug...
is used in nonprescription sleep aids such as Unisom (USA) and Unisom 2 (Canada). In some countries, including Australia, it is marketed under the names Restavit and Dozile. It is the most effective over-the-counter sedative currently available in the United States, and is more sedating than some prescription
hypnoticHypnotic drugs are a class of psychoactives whose primary function is to induce sleep and to be used in the treatment of insomnia and in surgical anesthesia...
s.
While the two drugs mentioned above are available over the counter in most countries, the effectiveness of these agents may decrease over time, and the incidence of next-day sedation is higher than for most of the newer prescription drugs.
AnticholinergicAn anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous system. An example of an anticholinergic is dicycloverine, and the classic example is atropine....
side-effects may also be a draw back of these particular drugs. Dependence does not seem to be an issue with this class of drugs.
CyproheptadineCyproheptadine , sold under the brand name Periactin, is a first-generation antihistamine with additional anticholinergic, antiserotonergic, and local anesthetic properties.- Indications :...
is a useful alternative to
benzodiazepineA benzodiazepine is a psychoactive drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring...
hypnotics in the treatment of insomnia. Cyproheptadine may be superior to benzodiazepines in the treatment of insomnia because cyproheptadine enhances sleep quality and quantity, whereas benzodiazepines tend to decrease sleep quality.
Atypical antipsychotics
Low doses of certain atypical antipsychotics such as
quetiapineQuetiapine , is an atypical antipsychotic approved for the treatment of schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder....
,
olanzapineOlanzapine is an atypical antipsychotic, approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder...
, and
risperidoneRisperidone is a second generation or atypical antipsychotic, sold under the trade name . It is used to treat schizophrenia , schizoaffective disorder, the mixed and manic states associated with bipolar disorder, and irritability in people with autism...
are also prescribed for their sedative effect, but the danger of neurological, metabolic, and cognitive side-effects makes these drugs a poor choice to treat insomnia. Over time, quetiapine may lose its effectiveness as a sedative. The ability of quetiapine to produce sedation is determined by the dosage. Higher doses (300 mg – 900 mg) are usually taken for its use as an antipsychotic, while lower doses (25 mg – 200 mg) have a marked sedative effect; e.g., if a patient takes 300 mg, he/she will more likely benefit from the drug's antipsychotic effects, but if the dose is brought down to 100 mg, it will leave the patient feeling more sedated than at 300 mg, because it works primarily as a sedative at lower doses.
EplivanserinEplivanserin was an experimental drug for the treatment of insomnia which was being developed by Sanofi Aventis....
is an investigational drug with a mechanism similar to antipsychotics.
Other substances
Some insomniacs use
herbExcept in botanical usage, an herb is "any plant with leaves, seeds, or flowers used for flavoring, food, medicine, or perfume" or "a part of such a plant as used in cooking"...
s such as medical marijuana, valerian,
chamomileChamomile or camomile is a common name for several daisy-like plants of the family Asteraceae. These plants are best known for their ability to be made into an infusion which is commonly used to help with sleep and is often served with either honey or lemon. Because chamomile can cause uterine...
,
lavenderThe lavenders are a genus of 39 species of flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae. An Old World genus, distributed from Macaronesia across Africa, the Mediterranean, South-West Asia, Arabia, Western Iran and South-East India...
,
hopsHops are the female flower clusters , of a hop species, Humulus lupulus. They are used primarily as a flavoring and stability agent in beer, to which they impart a bitter, tangy flavor, though hops are also used for various purposes in other beverages and herbal medicine...
, and passion-flower. Valerian has undergone multiple studies and appears to be modestly effective.
Insomnia may be a symptom of
magnesium deficiencyMagnesium deficiency refers to an intake of dietary magnesium below minimal levels, which can result in numerous symptoms and diseases. These can generally be remedied by an increase of magnesium in diet or oral supplements...
, or low
magnesiumMagnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole...
levels, but this has not yet been proven. A healthy diet containing
magnesiumMagnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole...
can help to improve sleep in individuals without an adequate intake of
magnesiumMagnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole...
.
L-
ArginineArginine is an α-amino acid. The L-form is one of the 20 most common natural amino acids. At the level of molecular genetics, in the structure of the messenger ribonucleic acid mRNA, CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, and AGG, are the triplets of nucleotide bases or codons that codify for arginine during...
L-aspartate,
S-adenosyl-L-homocysteineS-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine is an amino acid derivative used in several metabolic pathways in most organisms. It is an intermediate in the synthesis of cysteine and adenosine....
, and
Delta sleep-inducing peptideDelta sleep-inducing peptide, abbreviated DSIP, is a neuropeptide that when infused into the mesodiencephalic ventricle ofrecipient rabbits induces spindle and delta EEG activity and reduced motor activities....
(DSIP) may be also helpful in alleviating insomnia. There is some evidence showing that 3 grams of L-
GlycineGlycine is an organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH. Having a hydrogen substituent as its 'side chain', glycine is the smallest of the 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins. Its codons are GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG cf. the genetic code.Glycine is a colourless, sweet-tasting crystalline solid...
before bedtime improves sleep quality.
AlmorexantAlmorexant is a competitive receptor antagonist of the OX1 and OX2 orexin receptors, which was being developed by the pharmaceutical companies Actelion and GSK for the treatment of insomnia...
was an
orexinOrexins, also called hypocretins, are the common names given to a pair of excitatory neuropeptide hormones that were simultaneously discovered by two groups of researchers in rat brains....
antagonist undergoing clinical trials as a novel drug, but was dropped in January 2011 due to a poor side effect profile.
Epidemiology
A survey of 1.1 million residents in the United States conducted by the
American Cancer SocietyThe American Cancer Society is the "nationwide community-based voluntary health organization" dedicated, in their own words, "to eliminating cancer as a major health problem by preventing cancer, saving lives, and diminishing suffering from cancer, through research, education, advocacy, and...
found that those that reported sleeping about 7 hours per night had the lowest rates of mortality, whereas those that slept for fewer than 6 hours or more than 8 hours had higher mortality rates. Getting 8.5 or more hours of sleep per night increased the mortality rate by 15%. Severe insomnia – sleeping less than 3.5 hours in women and 4.5 hours in men – also led to a 15% increase in mortality. However, most of the increase in mortality from severe insomnia was discounted after controlling for co-morbid disorders. After controlling for sleep duration and insomnia, use of sleeping pills was also found to be associated with an increased
mortality rateMortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths in a population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time...
.
The lowest mortality was seen in individuals who slept between six and a half and seven and a half hours per night. Even sleeping only 4.5 hours per night is associated with very little increase in mortality. Thus, mild to moderate insomnia for most people is associated with increased
longevityThe word "longevity" is sometimes used as a synonym for "life expectancy" in demography or known as "long life", especially when it concerns someone or something lasting longer than expected ....
and severe insomnia is associated only with a very small effect on mortality.
As long as a patient refrains from using sleeping pills, there is little to no increase in mortality associated with insomnia, but there does appear to be an increase in longevity. This is reassuring for patients with insomnia in that, despite the sometimes-unpleasantness of insomnia, insomnia itself appears to be associated with increased
longevityThe word "longevity" is sometimes used as a synonym for "life expectancy" in demography or known as "long life", especially when it concerns someone or something lasting longer than expected ....
. It is unclear why sleeping longer than 7.5 hours is associated with excess mortality.
Insomnia is 40% more common in women than in men.
Prevalence
The
National Sleep FoundationThe National Sleep Foundation is an independent nonprofit organization in the USA whose objectives are to improve public health and safety by achieving understanding of sleep and sleep disorders, and to support sleep-related education, research, and advocacy.Established in 1990, the NSF relies on...
's 2002
Sleep in America poll showed that 58% of adults in the U.S. experienced symptoms of insomnia a few nights a week or more. Although insomnia was the most common sleep problem among about one half of older adults (48%), they were less likely to experience frequent symptoms of insomnia than their younger counterparts (45% vs. 62%), and their symptoms were more likely to be associated with medical conditions, according to the poll of adults between the ages of 55 and 84.
As explained by Thomas Roth, estimates of the prevalence of insomnia depend on the criteria used as well as the population studied. About 30% of adults report at least one of the symptoms of insomnia. When daytime impairment is added as a criterion, the prevalence is about 10%. Primary insomnia persisting for at least one month yields estimates of 6%.
See also
- Somniphobia
Hypnophobia or somniphobia is an abnormal fear of sleep. It may result from a feeling of control loss, or from repeating nightmares. The prefix Hypno- originates from the Greek word hupnos, which means sleep.-Causes of Hypnophobia:...
- Sleep deprivation
Sleep deprivation is the condition of not having enough sleep; it can be either chronic or acute. A chronic sleep-restricted state can cause fatigue, daytime sleepiness, clumsiness and weight loss or weight gain. It adversely affects the brain and cognitive function. Few studies have compared the...
- Actigraphy
Actigraphy is a non-invasive method of monitoring human rest/activity cycles. A small actigraph unit, also called an actimetry sensor, is worn by a patient to measure gross motor activity. Motor activity often under test is that of the wrist, measured by an actigraph in a wrist-watch-like package....
- Thai Ngoc
Thai Ngoc or Hai Ngoc is a Vietnamese insomniac. According to Vietnamese news organization Thanh Nien, he is best known for his claim of being awake for 38 years. Thanh Nien also claimed that Ngoc acquired the ability to go without sleep after a bout of fever in 1973, but according to the Vietnam...
, Vietnamese insomniac, claimed to be awake for 38 years
- Al Herpin
Al Herpin was an American known as the "Man Who Never Slept".Al Herpin, who lived in Trenton, New Jersey, claimed to have developed a rare case of insomnia, whereby he could not sleep...
, American insomniac, known as the "Man Who Never Slept"
Further reading
- Summers-Bremner, Eluned. Insomnia: A Cultural History (University of Chicago Press, 2008) 176 pp. ISBN 978-1-86189-317-8 excerpt and text search