Diffusion of Innovations is a theory of how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. The concept was first studied by the French sociologist
Gabriel TardeJean-Gabriel De Tarde was a French sociologist, criminologist and social psychologist who conceived sociology as based on small psychological interactions among individuals , the fundamental forces being imitation and innovation.Among the concepts that Tarde initiated were the group mind...
(1890) and by German and Austrian anthropologists such as
Friedrich RatzelFriedrich Ratzel was a German geographer and ethnographer, notable for coining the term Lebensraum .-Life:...
or
Leo FrobeniusLeo Viktor Frobenius was an ethnologist and archaeologist and a major figure in German ethnography.-Life:He was born in Berlin as the son of a Prussian officer and died in Biganzolo, Lago Maggiore, Piedmont, Italy...
. Its basic epidemiological or internal-influence form was described by H. Earl Pemberton, who provided examples of institutional diffusions such as postage stamps or compulsory school laws. The publication of a study of Ryan and Gross on the diffusion of hybrid corn in Iowa was the first sustainably visible contribution in a broader interest in innovations which was especially popularized by the textbook by
Everett RogersEverett M. Rogers , sociologist, communications scholar, pioneer of diffusion of innovations theory, writer, and teacher. He is best known for his 'diffusion of innovations' theory and introducing the term 'early adopter.'...
(1962),
Diffusion of Innovations . He defines diffusion as "the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system."
History
The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and span across multiple disciplines. Rogers identifies six main traditions that impacted diffusion research:
anthropologyAnthropology is the study of human beings, everywhere and throughout time....
, early sociology,
rural sociologyRural sociology is a field of sociology associated with the study of social life in non-metropolitan areas. It is the scientific study of social arrangements and behaviour amongst people distanced from points of concentrated population or economic activity...
,
educationEducation in its broadest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual...
, industrial, and medical sociology. The diffusion of innovation theory has been largely influenced by the work of rural sociologists . In the book
Diffusion of Innovations, Rogers synthesizes research from over 508 diffusion studies and produces a theory for the adoption of innovations among individuals and organizations.
Elements of diffusion of innovations
The key elements in diffusion research are: the innovation, types of communication channels, time or rate of adoption, and the social system which frames the innovation decision process.
Types of innovation-decisions
There are three types of innovation-decisions within diffusion of innovations. An individual or an organization/social system bases the type of decision on whether an innovation is adopted/rejected. The three types of innovation-decisions are: Optional innovation-decisions, collective innovation-decisions, authority innovation-decisions.
Optional Innovation-Decision
This decision is made by an individual who is in some way distinguished from others in a social system.
Collective Innovation-Decision
This decision is made collectively by all individuals of a social system.
Authority Innovation-Decision
This decision is made for the entire social system by few individuals in positions of influence or power.
The adoption process
Diffusion of an innovation occurs through a five–step process. This process is a type of decision-making. It occurs through a series of communication channels over a period of time among the members of a similar social system. Ryan & Gross first indicated the identification of adoption as a process in 1943 . Rogers categorizes the five stages (steps) as: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. It should be noted that an individual might reject an innovation at anytime during or after the adoption process. In later editions of the Diffusion of Innovations Rogers changes the terminology of the five stages to: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. However the descriptions of the categories have remained similar throughout the editions.
Five stages of the adoption process
Knowledge
In this stage the individual is first exposed to an innovation but lacks information about the innovation. It should be noted that during this stage of the process the individual has not been inspired to find more information about the innovation.
Persuasion
In this stage the individual is interested in the innovation and actively seeks information/detail about the innovation.
Decision
In this stage the individual takes the concept of the innovation and weighs the advantages/disadvantages of using the innovation and decides whether to adopt or reject the innovation. Due to the individualistic nature of this stage Rogers notes that it is the most difficult stage to acquire empirical evidence .
Implementation
In this stage the individual employs the innovation to a varying degree depending on the situation. During this stage the individual determines the usefulness of the innovation and may search for further information about it.
Confirmation
Although the name of this stage may be misleading, in this stage the individual finalizes their decision to continue using the innovation and may use the innovation to its fullest potential.
Rates of adoption
The rate of adoption is defined as: the relative speed with which members of a social system adopt an innovation. It is usually measured by the length of time required for a certain percentage of the members of a social system to adopt an innovation . The rates of adoption for innovations are determined by an individual’s adopter category. In general individuals who first adopt an innovation require a shorter adoption period (adoption process) than late adopters.
Within the rate of adoption there is a point at which a innovation reaches
critical massCritical mass is a sociodynamic term to describe the existence of sufficient momentum in a social system such that the momentum becomes self-sustaining and fuels further growth....
. This is a point in time within the adoption curve that enough individuals have adopted an innovation in order that the continued adoption of the innovation is self-sustaining. In describing how an innovation reaches critical mass, Rogers outlines several strategies in order to help a innovation reach this stage. These strategies are: have an innovation adopted by a highly respected individual within a social network, creating an instinctive desire for a specific innovation. Inject an innovation into a group of individuals who would readily use an innovation, and provide positive reactions and benefits for early adopters of an innovation.
Characteristics of innovations
Rogers defines several intrinsic characteristics of innovations that influence an individual’s decision to adopt or reject an innovation. The relative advantage is how improved an innovation is over the previous generation.
CompatibilityThe term compatibility may refer to:* In biology:** Blood type compatibility* In computing:** Pin-compatibility** Computer compatibility*** Backward compatibility*** Forward compatibility* It may also refer to:** Astrological compatibility...
is the second characteristic, the level of compatibility that an innovation has to be assimilated into an individual’s life. The
complexityIn general usage, complexity tends to be used to characterize something with many parts in intricate arrangement. The study of these complex linkages is the main goal of network theory and network science...
of an innovation is a significant factor in whether it is adopted by an individual. If the innovation is too difficult to use an individual will not likely adopt it. The fourth characteristic, trialability, determines how easily an innovation may be experimented with as it is being adopted. If a user has a hard time using and trying an innovation this individual will be less likely to adopt it. The final characteristic,
observabilityObservability, in control theory, is a measure for how well internal states of a system can be inferred by knowledge of its external outputs. The observability and controllability of a system are mathematical duals....
, is the extent that an innovation is visible to others. An innovation that is more visible will drive communication among the individual’s peers and personal networks and will in turn create more positive or negative reactions.
Adopter categories
Rogers defines an adopter category as a classification of individuals within a social system on the basis of innovativeness. In the book
Diffusion of Innovations, Rogers suggests a total of five categories of adopters in order to standardize the usage of adopter categories in diffusion research. It should be noted that the adoption of an innovation follows an
S curveS Curve can refer to the following:*S Curve , an art term for a sinuous body position, noted in ancient marble sculpture*Sigmoid function, a mathematical function that produces a sigmoid curve or a curve having an "S" shape...
when plotted over a length of time. The categories of adopters are: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards
Innovators
Innovators are the first individuals to adopt an innovation. Innovators are willing to take risks, youngest in age, have the highest
social classSocial classes are the hierarchical arrangements of people in society as economic or cultural groups. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political economists and social historians...
, have great financial lucidity, very social and have closest contact to scientific sources and interaction with other innovators.
Early Adopters
This is second fastest category of individuals who adopt an innovation. These individuals have the highest degree of
opinion leadershipOpinion leadership is a concept that arose out of the theory of two-step flow of communication propounded by Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. This theory is one of several models that try to explain the diffusion of innovations, ideas, or commercial products....
among the other adopter categories. Early adopters are typically younger in age, have a higher social status, have more financial lucidity, advanced education, and are more socially forward than late adopters .
Early Majority
Individuals in this category adopt an innovation after a varying degree of time. This time of adoption is significantly longer than the innovators and early adopters. Early Majority tend to be slower in the adoption process, have above average social status, contact with early adopters, and show some
opinion leadershipOpinion leadership is a concept that arose out of the theory of two-step flow of communication propounded by Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. This theory is one of several models that try to explain the diffusion of innovations, ideas, or commercial products....
Late Majority
Individuals in this category will adopt an innovation after the average member of the society. These individuals approach an innovation with a high degree of skepticism and after the majority of society has adopted the innovation. Late Majority are typically skeptical about an innovation, have below average social status, very little financial lucidity, in contact with others in late majority and early majority, very little
opinion leadershipOpinion leadership is a concept that arose out of the theory of two-step flow of communication propounded by Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. This theory is one of several models that try to explain the diffusion of innovations, ideas, or commercial products....
.
Laggards
Individuals in this category are the last to adopt an innovation. Unlike some of the previous categories, individuals in this category show little to no opinion leadership. These individuals typically have an aversion to change-agents and tend to be advanced in age. Laggards typically tend to be focused on “traditions”, have lowest social status, lowest financial fluidity, oldest of all other adopters, in contact with only family and close friends, very little to no
opinion leadershipOpinion leadership is a concept that arose out of the theory of two-step flow of communication propounded by Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. This theory is one of several models that try to explain the diffusion of innovations, ideas, or commercial products....
.
Opinion leaders and communication channels
Throughout the diffusion process there is evidence that not all individuals exert an equal amount of influence over all individuals. In this sense there are Opinion Leaders, leaders who are influential in spreading either positive or negative information about an innovation. Rogers relies on the ideas of Katz & Lazarsfeld and the two-step flow theory in developing his ideas on the influence of Opinion Leaders in the diffusion process
Opinion Leaders have the most influence during the evaluation stage of the innovation-decision process and late adopters . In addition opinion leaders have a set of characteristics that set them apart from their followers and other individuals. Opinion Leaders typically have greater exposure to the mass media, more cosmopolitan, greater contact with change agents, more social experience and exposure, higher socioeconomic status, and are more innovative.
Diffusion in organizations
Innovations are often adopted by organizations through two types of innovation-decisions: collective innovation decisions and authority innovation decisions. The collection-innovation decision occurs when the adoption of an innovation has been made by a consensus among the members of an organization. The authority-innovation decision occurs when the adoption of an innovation has been made by very few individuals with high positions of power within an organization . Unlike the optional innovation decision process, these innovation-decision processes only occur within an organization or hierarchical group.
Within the innovation decision process in an organization there are certain individuals termed "champions" who stand behind an innovation and break through any opposition that the innovation may have caused. The champion within the diffusion of innovation theory plays a very similar role as to the champion used within the efficiency business model
Six SigmaSix Sigma is a business management strategy originally developed by Motorola. it enjoys widespread application in many sectors of industry, although its application is not without controversy....
.
The innovation process within an organization contains five stages that are slightly similar to the innovation-decision process that individuals undertake. These stages are: agenda-setting, matching, redefining/restructuring, clarifying, routinizing.
Consequences of adoption
There are both positive and negative outcomes when an individual or organization chooses to adopt a particular innovation. Rogers states that this is an area that needs further research because of the biased positive attitude that is associated with the adoption of a new innovation . In the Diffusion of Innovation, Rogers lists three categories for consequences, desirable vs. undesirable, direct vs. indirect, and anticipated vs. unanticipated.
Diffusion and management
Much of the evidence for the diffusion of innovations gathered by Rogers comes from agricultural methods and medical practice.
Various computer models have been developed in order to simulate the diffusion of innovations. Veneris
developed a systems dynamics computer model which takes into account various diffusion patterns modeled via differential equations.
There are a number of criticisms of the model which make it less than useful for managers. First, technologies are not static. There is continual innovation in order to attract new adopters all along the S-curve. The S-curve does not just 'happen'. Instead, the s-curve can be seen as being made up of a series of 'bell curves' of different sections of a population adopting different versions of a generic innovation.
s
The role of elecronic communication social networks in assisting the diffusion of innovation
Prior to the introduction of the Internet, it was argued that social networks had a crucial role in the diffusion of innovation particularly
Tacit knowledgeTacit knowledge is knowledge that is difficult to be transferred to another person by means of writing down or verbalizing it. For example, stating to someone that Tooting is in London is a piece of explicit knowledge that can be written down, transmitted, and understood by a recipient...
in the book
The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome itThe IRG Solution – David Andrews, Souvenir Press, 1984This book, written in 1984, developed from a number of research papers at the Open University Energy Research Group, and an article appearing in the Guardian Newspaper which attempted an information and communication based approach to analyzing...
. The book argued that the widespread addoption of computer networks of individuality's would lead to the much better diffusion of innovations, and with greater understanding of their possible shortcomings, and the identification of needed innovations that would not have otherwise occurred - the Relevance paradox.
See also
- Lateral diffusion
Lateral diffusion is the process whereby information can be spread from one node in a social network to another, often in a selective way, and can rapidly traverse an entire population, but preferentially to those nodes likely to be interested, or needing to know. Messages or information are also...
- Central media
Central media were defined in the book The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it and were those media which repeatedly broadcast a single identical message to many recipients such as mass media magazines and specialist technical and scientific journals...
- Collaborative innovation network
- Delphi technique
- Hierarchical incompetence
Hierarchical incompetence is the over-simplification of issues and the loss of tacit knowledge about issues as they ascend a hierarchical organization. There is a tendency for lateral communication across the various departments, fiefdoms, etc. to be stifled either actively by management, or by...
- hierarchical organization
A hierarchical organization is an organizational structure where every entity in the organization, except one, is subordinate to a single other entity. This arrangement is a form of a hierarchy. In an organization, the hierarchy usually consists of a singular/group of power at the top with...
- Information Routing Group
An Information Routing Group is one of a semi-infinite set of similar interlocking and overlapping groups each IRG containing a group of individuals and each IRG loosely sharing a particular common interest; IRGists exchange information, as a group, a sub group, or individually within that IRG,...
- Interlock diagram
An interlock diagram is a real or imagined diagram that plots the actual interactions, physical, political, social, environmental between all entities within human societies. Each node is a specific activity such as a power station, or a policy such as controlled rent...
- Interlock research
Interlock Research is a concept used to overcome the gaps in individual or group knowledge of which they are unaware of and which would result in incorrect action being taken, or important action not taken, leading to unintended consequences. It is based on the notion that no individual or group...
- lateral communication
-Organizational communication:In organizations and organisms, lateral communication works in contrast to traditional top-down, bottom-up or hierarchic communication and involves the spreading of messages from individuals across the base of a pyramid....
- lateral media
Lateral media can be seen as any specific technology to promote lateral communication. A grapevine is in effect lateral communication but is not necessarily a lateral media if there is no technology...
- Pro-innovation bias
- Definition :In diffusion of innovation theory, a pro-innovation bias reflects a personal bias toward a new innovation that someone is trying to implement, or, diffuse among a population...
- Relevance paradox
Relevance paradox The relevance paradox occurs because people only seek information that they perceive is relevant to them. However there may be information that is not perceived as relevant because the information seeker does not already have it, and only becomes relevant when he does have it...
- Tacit knowledge
Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is difficult to be transferred to another person by means of writing down or verbalizing it. For example, stating to someone that Tooting is in London is a piece of explicit knowledge that can be written down, transmitted, and understood by a recipient...
- The Wisdom of Crowds
The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few and How Collective Wisdom Shapes Business, Economies, Societies and Nations, published in 2004, ISBN 978-0385503860, is a book written by James Surowiecki about the aggregation of information in groups, resulting in decisions that, he...
External links