A
Cartesian coordinate system specifies each
pointIn geometry, topology and related branches of mathematics a spatial point is a primitive notion upon which other concepts may be defined. In geometry, points are zero-dimensional; i.e., they do not have volume, area, length, or any other higher-dimensional analogue. In branches of mathematics...
uniquely in a
planeIn mathematics, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface. A plane is the two dimensional analogue of a point , a line and a space...
by a pair of
numericalA number is a mathematical object used to count and measure. In mathematics, the definition of number has been extended over the years to include such numbers as zero, negative numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and complex numbers....
coordinates, which are the signed distances from the point to two fixed
perpendicularIn geometry, two lines or planes are considered perpendicular to each other if they form congruent adjacent angles . The term may be used as a noun or adjective...
directed lines, measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line is called a
coordinate axis or just
axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its
originIn mathematics, the origin of a Euclidean space is a special point, usually denoted by the letter O, used as a fixed point of reference for the geometry of the surrounding space. In a Cartesian coordinate system, the origin is the point where the axes of the system intersect...
, usually at ordered pair (0,0). The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin.
One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-
dimensionIn physics and mathematics, the dimension of a space or object is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus a line has a dimension of one because only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on it...
al space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines). In general, one can specify a point in a space of any
dimensionIn physics and mathematics, the dimension of a space or object is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus a line has a dimension of one because only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on it...
n by use of
n Cartesian coordinates, the signed distances from
n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes.
The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by
René DescartesRené Descartes ; was a French philosopher and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day...
(
LatinizedLatinisation is the practice of rendering a non-Latin name in a Latin style. It is commonly met with for historical personal names, with toponyms, or for the standard binomial nomenclature of the life sciences. It goes further than Romanisation, which is the writing of a word in the Latin alphabet...
name:
Cartesius) revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between
Euclidean geometryEuclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Alexandrian Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook on geometry: the Elements. Euclid's method consists in assuming a small set of intuitively appealing axioms, and deducing many other propositions from these...
and
algebraAlgebra is the branch of mathematics concerning the study of the rules of operations and relations, and the constructions and concepts arising from them, including terms, polynomials, equations and algebraic structures...
. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as
curveIn mathematics, a curve is, generally speaking, an object similar to a line but which is not required to be straight...
s) can be described by
Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2 may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates
x and
y satisfy the equation
x2 +
y2 = 4.
Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of
analytic geometryAnalytic geometry, or analytical geometry has two different meanings in mathematics. The modern and advanced meaning refers to the geometry of analytic varieties...
, and provide enlightening geometric interpretations for many other branches of mathematics, such as
linear algebraLinear algebra is a branch of mathematics that studies vector spaces, also called linear spaces, along with linear functions that input one vector and output another. Such functions are called linear maps and can be represented by matrices if a basis is given. Thus matrix theory is often...
,
complex analysisA complex number is a number consisting of a real part and an imaginary part. Complex numbers extend the idea of the one-dimensional number line to the two-dimensional complex plane by using the number line for the real part and adding a vertical axis to plot the imaginary part...
, differential geometry, multivariate
calculusCalculus is a branch of mathematics focused on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series. This subject constitutes a major part of modern mathematics education. It has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus, which are related by the fundamental theorem...
,
group theoryIn mathematics and abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups.The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as rings, fields, and vector spaces can all be seen as groups endowed with additional operations and...
, and more. A familiar example is the concept of the
graphIn mathematics, a graph is an abstract representation of a set of objects where some pairs of the objects are connected by links. The interconnected objects are represented by mathematical abstractions called vertices, and the links that connect some pairs of vertices are called edges...
of a
functionIn mathematics, a function associates one quantity, the argument of the function, also known as the input, with another quantity, the value of the function, also known as the output. A function assigns exactly one output to each input. The argument and the value may be real numbers, but they can...
. Cartesian coordinates are also essential tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including
astronomyAstronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth...
,
physicsPhysics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
,
engineeringEngineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of...
, and many more. They are the most common coordinate system used in
computer graphicsComputer graphics are graphics created using computers and, more generally, the representation and manipulation of image data by a computer with help from specialized software and hardware....
, computer-aided geometric design, and other
geometry-related data processingComputational geometry is a branch of computer science devoted to the study of algorithms which can be stated in terms of geometry. Some purely geometrical problems arise out of the study of computational geometric algorithms, and such problems are also considered to be part of computational...
.
History
The adjective
Cartesian refers to the
FrenchThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
mathematicianA mathematician is a person whose primary area of study is the field of mathematics. Mathematicians are concerned with quantity, structure, space, and change....
and philosopher
René DescartesRené Descartes ; was a French philosopher and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day...
(who used the name
Cartesius in
LatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
).
The idea of this system was developed in 1637 in two writings by Descartes and independently by
Pierre de FermatPierre de Fermat was a French lawyer at the Parlement of Toulouse, France, and an amateur mathematician who is given credit for early developments that led to infinitesimal calculus, including his adequality...
, although Fermat used three dimensions, and did not publish the discovery. Descartes introduces the new idea of specifying the position of a
pointIn geometry, topology and related branches of mathematics a spatial point is a primitive notion upon which other concepts may be defined. In geometry, points are zero-dimensional; i.e., they do not have volume, area, length, or any other higher-dimensional analogue. In branches of mathematics...
or object on a surface, using two intersecting axes as measuring guides. In
La GéométrieLa Géométrie was published in 1637 as an appendix to Discours de la méthode , written by René Descartes. In the Discourse, he presents his method for obtaining clarity on any subject...
, he further explores the above-mentioned concepts.
The development of the Cartesian coordinate system enabled the development of
perspectivePerspective in the graphic arts, such as drawing, is an approximate representation, on a flat surface , of an image as it is seen by the eye...
and
projective geometryIn mathematics, projective geometry is the study of geometric properties that are invariant under projective transformations. This means that, compared to elementary geometry, projective geometry has a different setting, projective space, and a selective set of basic geometric concepts...
. It would later play an intrinsic role in the development of
calculusCalculus is a branch of mathematics focused on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series. This subject constitutes a major part of modern mathematics education. It has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus, which are related by the fundamental theorem...
by
Isaac NewtonSir Isaac Newton PRS was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived."...
and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
Nicole Oresme, a French philosopher of the 14th Century, used constructions similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes.
Many other coordinate systems have been developed since Descartes, such as the
polar coordinatesIn mathematics, the polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a fixed point and an angle from a fixed direction....
for the plane, and the spherical and cylindrical coordinates for three-dimensional space.
Number line
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space—that is, for a straight line—means choosing a point
O of the line (the origin), a unit of length, and an orientation for the line. An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by
O is the positive, and which is negative; we then say that the line "is oriented" (or "points") from the negative half towards the positive half. Then each point
p of the line can be specified by its distance from
O, taken with a + or − sign depending on which half-line contains
p.
A line with a chosen Cartesian system is called a
number line. Every real number, whether integer, rational, or irrational, has a unique location on the line. Conversely, every point on the line can be interpreted as a
numberA number is a mathematical object used to count and measure. In mathematics, the definition of number has been extended over the years to include such numbers as zero, negative numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and complex numbers....
in an ordered continuum which includes the real numbers.
Cartesian coordinates in two dimensions
The modern Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular coordinate system) is defined by an
ordered pairIn mathematics, an ordered pair is a pair of mathematical objects. In the ordered pair , the object a is called the first entry, and the object b the second entry of the pair...
of
perpendicularIn geometry, two lines or planes are considered perpendicular to each other if they form congruent adjacent angles . The term may be used as a noun or adjective...
lines (axes), a single unit of length for both axes, and an orientation for each axis. (Early systems allowed "oblique" axes, that is, axes that did not meet at right angles.) The lines are commonly referred to as the
x and
y-axes where the
x-axis is taken to be horizontal and the
y-axis is taken to be vertical. The point where the axes meet is taken as the origin for both, thus turning each axis into a number line. For a given point
P, a line is drawn through
P perpendicular to the
x-axis to meet it at
X and second line is drawn through
P perpendicular to the
y-axis to meet it at
Y. The coordinates of
P are then
X and
Y interpreted as numbers
x and
y on the corresponding number lines. The coordinates are written as an ordered pair (
x,
y).
The point where the axes meet is the common origin of the two number lines and is simply called the
origin. It is often labeled
O and if so then the axes are called
Ox and
Oy. A plane with
x and
y-axes defined is often referred to as the Cartesian plane or
xy plane. The value of
x is called the
x-coordinate or
abscissaIn mathematics, abscissa refers to that element of an ordered pair which is plotted on the horizontal axis of a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, as opposed to the ordinate...
and the value of
y is called the
y-coordinate or
ordinateIn mathematics, ordinate refers to that element of an ordered pair which is plotted on the vertical axis of a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, as opposed to the abscissa...
.
The choices of letters come from the original convention, which is to use the latter part of the alphabet to indicate unknown values. The first part of the alphabet was used to designate known values.
Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a three-dimensional space means choosing an ordered triplet of lines (axes), any two of them being perpendicular; a single unit of length for all three axes; and an orientation for each axis. As in the two-dimensional case, each axis becomes a number line. The coordinates of a point
p are obtained by drawing a line through
p perpendicular to each coordinate axis, and reading the points where these lines meet the axes as three numbers of these number lines.
Alternatively, the coordinates of a point
p can also be taken as the (signed) distances from
p to the three planes defined by the three axes. If the axes are named
x,
y, and
z, then the
x coordinate is the distance from the plane defined by the
y and
z axes. The distance is to be taken with the + or − sign, depending on which of the two
half-spaceIn geometry, a half-space is either of the two parts into which a plane divides the three-dimensional euclidean space. More generally, a half-space is either of the two parts into which a hyperplane divides an affine space...
s separated by that plane contains
p. The
y and
z coordinates can be obtained in the same way from the (
x,
z) and (
x,
y) planes, respectively.
Generalizations
One can generalize the concept of Cartesian coordinates to allow axes that are not perpendicular to each other, and/or different units along each axis. In that case, each coordinate is obtained by projecting the point onto one axis along a direction that is parallel to the other axis (or, in general, to the hyperplane defined by all the other axes). In those
oblique coordinate systems the computations of distances and angles is more complicated than in standard Cartesian systems, and many standard formulas (such as the Pythagorean formula for the distance) do not hold.
Notations and conventions
The Cartesian coordinates of a point are usually written in parentheses and separated by commas, as in (10,5) or (3,5,7). The origin is often labelled with the capital letter
O. In analytic geometry, unknown or generic coordinates are often denoted by the letters
x and
y on the plane, and
x,
y, and
z in three-dimensional space.
w is often used for four-dimensional space, but the rarity of such usage precludes concrete convention here. This custom comes from an old convention of algebra, to use letters near the end of the alphabet for unknown values (such as were the coordinates of points in many geometric problems), and letters near the beginning for given quantities.
These conventional names are often used in other domains, such as physics and engineering. However, other letters may be used too. For example, in a graph showing how a
pressurePressure is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure.- Definition :...
varies with
timeTime is a part of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change such as the motions of objects....
, the graph coordinates may be denoted
t and
P. Each axis is usually named after the coordinate which is measured along it; so one says the
x-axis, the
y-axis, the
t-axis, etc.
Another common convention for coordinate naming is to use subscripts, as in
x1,
x2, ...
xn for the
n coordinates in an
n-dimensional space; especially when
n is greater than 3, or variable. Some authors (and many
programmerA programmer, computer programmer or coder is someone who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to...
s) prefer the numbering
x0,
x1, ...
xn−1. These notations are especially advantageous in
computer programmingComputer programming is the process of designing, writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code of computer programs. This source code is written in one or more programming languages. The purpose of programming is to create a program that performs specific operations or exhibits a...
: by storing the coordinates of a point as an
arrayIn computer science, an array type is a data type that is meant to describe a collection of elements , each selected by one or more indices that can be computed at run time by the program. Such a collection is usually called an array variable, array value, or simply array...
, instead of a
recordIn computer science, a record is an instance of a product of primitive data types called a tuple. In C it is the compound data in a struct. Records are among the simplest data structures. A record is a value that contains other values, typically in fixed number and sequence and typically indexed...
, one can use
iterative commandIteration means the act of repeating a process usually with the aim of approaching a desired goal or target or result. Each repetition of the process is also called an "iteration," and the results of one iteration are used as the starting point for the next iteration.-Mathematics:Iteration in...
s or
procedureIn computer science, a subroutine is a portion of code within a larger program that performs a specific task and is relatively independent of the remaining code....
parameterParameter from Ancient Greek παρά also “para” meaning “beside, subsidiary” and μέτρον also “metron” meaning “measure”, can be interpreted in mathematics, logic, linguistics, environmental science and other disciplines....
s instead of repeating the same commands for each coordinate.
In mathematical illustrations of two-dimensional Cartesian systems, the first coordinate (traditionally called the
abscissaIn mathematics, abscissa refers to that element of an ordered pair which is plotted on the horizontal axis of a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, as opposed to the ordinate...
) is measured along a
horizontalIn geometry, physics, astronomy, geography, and related sciences, a plane is said to be horizontal at a given point if it is perpendicular to the gradient of the gravity field at that point— in other words, if apparent gravity makes a plumb bob hang perpendicular to the plane at that point.In...
axis, oriented from left to right. The second coordinate (the
ordinateIn mathematics, ordinate refers to that element of an ordered pair which is plotted on the vertical axis of a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, as opposed to the abscissa...
) is then measured along a
verticalIn astronomy, geography, geometry and related sciences and contexts, a direction passing by a given point is said to be vertical if it is locally aligned with the gradient of the gravity field, i.e., with the direction of the gravitational force at that point...
axis, usually oriented from bottom to top.
However, in computer graphics and
image processingIn electrical engineering and computer science, image processing is any form of signal processing for which the input is an image, such as a photograph or video frame; the output of image processing may be either an image or, a set of characteristics or parameters related to the image...
one often uses a coordinate system with the
y axis pointing down (as displayed on the computer's screen). This convention developed in the 1960s (or earlier) from the way that images were originally stored in display buffers.
For three-dimensional systems, the
z axis is often shown vertical and pointing up (positive up), so that the
x and
y axes lie on a horizontal plane. If a diagram (
3D projection3D projection is any method of mapping three-dimensional points to a two-dimensional plane. As most current methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two-dimensional media, the use of this type of projection is widespread, especially in computer graphics, engineering and drafting.-...
or
2D perspective drawingPerspective in the graphic arts, such as drawing, is an approximate representation, on a flat surface , of an image as it is seen by the eye...
) shows the
x and
y axis horizontally and vertically, respectively, then the
z axis should be shown pointing "out of the page" towards the viewer or camera. In such a 2D diagram of a 3D coordinate system, the
z axis would appear as a line or ray pointing down and to the left or down and to the right, depending on the presumed viewer or camera
perspectivePerspective in the graphic arts, such as drawing, is an approximate representation, on a flat surface , of an image as it is seen by the eye...
. In any diagram or display, the orientation of the three axes, as a whole, is arbitrary. However, the orientation of the axes relative to each other should always comply with the
right-hand ruleIn mathematics and physics, the right-hand rule is a common mnemonic for understanding notation conventions for vectors in 3 dimensions. It was invented for use in electromagnetism by British physicist John Ambrose Fleming in the late 19th century....
, unless specifically stated otherwise. All laws of physics and math assume this right-handedness, which ensures consistency. For 3D diagrams, the names "abscissa" and "ordinate" are rarely used for
x and
y, respectively. When they are, the
z-coordinate is sometimes called the
applicate.
The words
abscissa,
ordinate and
applicate are sometimes used to refer to coordinate axes rather than values.
Quadrants and octants
The axes of a two-dimensional Cartesian system divide the plane into four infinite regions, called
quadrants, each bounded by two half-axes. These are often numbered from 1st to 4th and denoted by Roman numerals: I (where the signs of the two coordinates are I (+,+), II (−,+), III (−,−), and IV (+,−). When the axes are drawn according to the mathematical custom, the numbering goes
counter-clockwiseCircular motion can occur in two possible directions. A clockwise motion is one that proceeds in the same direction as a clock's hands: from the top to the right, then down and then to the left, and back to the top...
starting from the upper right ("northeast") quadrant.
Similarly, a three-dimensional Cartesian system defines a division of space into eight regions or
octants, according to the signs of the coordinates of the points. The octant where all three coordinates are positive is sometimes called the
first octant; however, there is no established nomenclature for the other octants. The n-dimensional generalization of the quadrant and octant is the
orthantIn geometry, an orthant or hyperoctant is the analogue in n-dimensional Euclidean space of a quadrant in the plane or an octant in three dimensions....
.
Cartesian space
A Euclidean plane with a chosen Cartesian system is called a
Cartesian plane. Since Cartesian coordinates are unique and non-ambiguous, the points of a Cartesian plane can be identified with all possible pairs of
real numberIn mathematics, a real number is a value that represents a quantity along a continuum, such as -5 , 4/3 , 8.6 , √2 and π...
s; that is with the
Cartesian productIn mathematics, a Cartesian product is a construction to build a new set out of a number of given sets. Each member of the Cartesian product corresponds to the selection of one element each in every one of those sets...
, where
is the set of all reals. In the same way one defines a
Cartesian space of any dimension
n, whose points can be identified with the
tupleIn mathematics and computer science, a tuple is an ordered list of elements. In set theory, an n-tuple is a sequence of n elements, where n is a positive integer. There is also one 0-tuple, an empty sequence. An n-tuple is defined inductively using the construction of an ordered pair...
s (lists) of
n real numbers, that is, with
.
Distance between two points
The
Euclidean distanceIn mathematics, the Euclidean distance or Euclidean metric is the "ordinary" distance between two points that one would measure with a ruler, and is given by the Pythagorean formula. By using this formula as distance, Euclidean space becomes a metric space...
between two points of the plane with Cartesian coordinates
and
is
This is the Cartesian version of Pythagoras' theorem. In three-dimensional space, the distance between points
and
is
which can be obtained by two consecutive applications of Pythagoras' theorem.
Translation
TranslatingIn Euclidean geometry, a translation moves every point a constant distance in a specified direction. A translation can be described as a rigid motion, other rigid motions include rotations and reflections. A translation can also be interpreted as the addition of a constant vector to every point, or...
a set of points of the plane, preserving the distances and directions between them, is equivalent to adding a fixed pair of numbers (
X,
Y) to the Cartesian coordinates of every point in the set. That is, if the original coordinates of a point are (
x,
y), after the translation they will be
Scaling
To make a figure larger or smaller is equivalent to multiplying the Cartesian coordinates of every point by the same positive number
m. If (
x,
y) are the coordinates of a point on the original figure, the corresponding point on the scaled figure has coordinates
If
m is greater than 1, the figure becomes larger; if
m is between 0 and 1, it becomes smaller.
Rotation
To rotate a figure
counterclockwiseCircular motion can occur in two possible directions. A clockwise motion is one that proceeds in the same direction as a clock's hands: from the top to the right, then down and then to the left, and back to the top...
around the origin by some angle
is equivalent to replacing every point with coordinates (
x,
y) by the point with coordinates (
x',
y'), where
Thus:
Reflection
If (
x,
y) are the Cartesian coordinates of a point, then (−
x,
y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the second coordinate axis (the Y axis), as if that line were a mirror. Likewise, (
x, −
y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the first coordinate axis (the X axis).
General transformations
The Euclidean transformations of the plane are the translations, rotations, scalings, reflections, and arbitrary compositions thereof. The result
of applying a Euclidean transformation to a point
is given by the formula
where
A is a 2×2
matrixIn mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions. The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries. An example of a matrix with six elements isMatrices of the same size can be added or subtracted element by element...
and
b is a pair of numbers, that depend on the transformation; that is,
The matrix
A must have orthogonal rows with same Euclidean length, that is,
and
This is equivalent to saying that
A times its
transposeIn linear algebra, the transpose of a matrix A is another matrix AT created by any one of the following equivalent actions:...
must be a
diagonal matrixIn linear algebra, a diagonal matrix is a matrix in which the entries outside the main diagonal are all zero. The diagonal entries themselves may or may not be zero...
. If these conditions do not hold, the formula describes a more general
affine transformationIn geometry, an affine transformation or affine map or an affinity is a transformation which preserves straight lines. It is the most general class of transformations with this property...
of the plane.
The formulas define a translation
if and only ifIn logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, if and only if is a biconditional logical connective between statements....
A is the
identity matrixIn linear algebra, the identity matrix or unit matrix of size n is the n×n square matrix with ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere. It is denoted by In, or simply by I if the size is immaterial or can be trivially determined by the context...
. The transformation is a rotation around some point if and only if
A is a
rotation matrix, meaning that
Orientation and handedness
In two dimensions
Fixing or choosing the
x-axis determines the
y-axis up to direction. Namely, the
y-axis is necessarily the
perpendicularIn geometry, two lines or planes are considered perpendicular to each other if they form congruent adjacent angles . The term may be used as a noun or adjective...
to the
x-axis through the point marked 0 on the
x-axis. But there is a choice of which of the two half lines on the perpendicular to designate as positive and which as negative. Each of these two choices determines a different orientation (also called
handedness) of the Cartesian plane.
The usual way of orienting the axes, with the positive
x-axis pointing right and the positive
y-axis pointing up (and the
x-axis being the "first" and the
y-axis the "second" axis) is considered the
positive or
standard orientation, also called the
right-handed orientation.
A commonly used mnemonic for defining the positive orientation is the
right hand rule. Placing a somewhat closed right hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up, the fingers point from the
x-axis to the
y-axis, in a positively oriented coordinate system.
The other way of orienting the axes is following the
left hand rule, placing the left hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up.
When pointing the thumb away from the origin along an axis, the curvature of the fingers indicates a positive rotation along that axis.
Regardless of the rule used to orient the axes, rotating the coordinate system will preserve the orientation. Switching any two axes will reverse the orientation.
In three dimensions
Once the
x- and
y-axes are specified, they determine the
lineThe notion of line or straight line was introduced by the ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects...
along which the
z-axis should lie, but there are two possible directions on this line. The two possible coordinate systems which result are called 'right-handed' and 'left-handed'. The standard orientation, where the
xy-plane is horizontal and the
z-axis points up (and the
x- and the
y-axis form a positively oriented two-dimensional coordinate system in the
xy-plane if observed from
above the
xy-plane) is called
right-handed or
positive.
The name derives from the
right-hand ruleIn mathematics and physics, the right-hand rule is a common mnemonic for understanding notation conventions for vectors in 3 dimensions. It was invented for use in electromagnetism by British physicist John Ambrose Fleming in the late 19th century....
. If the
index fingerThe index finger, , is the first finger and the second digit of a human hand. It is located between the first and third digits, between the thumb and the middle finger...
of the right hand is pointed forward, the
middle fingerThe middle finger or long finger is the third digit of the human hand, located between the index finger and the ring finger. It is usually the longest finger...
bent inward at a right angle to it, and the
thumbThe thumb is the first digit of the hand. When a person is standing in the medical anatomical position , the thumb is the lateral-most digit...
placed at a right angle to both, the three fingers indicate the relative directions of the
x-,
y-, and
z-axes in a
right-handed system. The thumb indicates the
x-axis, the index finger the
y-axis and the middle finger the
z-axis. Conversely, if the same is done with the left hand, a left-handed system results.
Figure 7 depicts a left and a right-handed coordinate system. Because a three-dimensional object is represented on the two-dimensional screen, distortion and ambiguity result. The axis pointing downward (and to the right) is also meant to point
towards the observer, whereas the "middle" axis is meant to point
away from the observer. The red circle is
parallel to the horizontal
xy-plane and indicates rotation from the
x-axis to the
y-axis (in both cases). Hence the red arrow passes
in front of the
z-axis.
Figure 8 is another attempt at depicting a right-handed coordinate system. Again, there is an ambiguity caused by projecting the three-dimensional coordinate system into the plane. Many observers see Figure 8 as "flipping in and out" between a convex cube and a concave "corner". This corresponds to the two possible orientations of the coordinate system. Seeing the figure as convex gives a left-handed coordinate system. Thus the "correct" way to view Figure 8 is to imagine the
x-axis as pointing
towards the observer and thus seeing a concave corner.
Representing a vector in the standard basis
A point in space in a Cartesian coordinate system may also be represented by a
vectorIn linear algebra, a coordinate vector is an explicit representation of a vector in an abstract vector space as an ordered list of numbers or, equivalently, as an element of the coordinate space Fn....
, which can be thought of as an arrow pointing from the origin of the coordinate system to the point. If the coordinates represent spatial positions (displacements) it is common to represent the vector from the origin to the point of interest as
. In three dimensions, the vector from the origin to the point with Cartesian coordinates
is sometimes written as:
where
,
, and
are unit vectors and the respective
versors of
,
, and
axes. This is the
quaternionIn mathematics, the quaternions are a number system that extends the complex numbers. They were first described by Irish mathematician Sir William Rowan Hamilton in 1843 and applied to mechanics in three-dimensional space...
representation of the vector, and was introduced by Sir William Rowan Hamilton. The unit vectors
,
, and
are called the
versors of the coordinate system, and are the vectors of the
standard basisIn mathematics, the standard basis for a Euclidean space consists of one unit vector pointing in the direction of each axis of the Cartesian coordinate system...
in three-dimensions.
Applications
Each axis may have different
units of measurementA unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by convention and/or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical quantity. Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of...
associated with it (such as kilograms, seconds, pounds, etc.). Although four- and higher-dimensional spaces are difficult to visualize, the algebra of Cartesian coordinates can be extended relatively easily to four or more variables, so that certain calculations involving many variables can be done. (This sort of algebraic extension is what is used to define the geometry of higher-dimensional spaces.) Conversely, it is often helpful to use the geometry of Cartesian coordinates in two or three dimensions to visualize algebraic relationships between two or three of many non-spatial variables.
The graph of a function or relation is the set of all points satisfying that function or relation. For a function of one variable,
f, the set of all points (
x,
y) where
y =
f(
x) is the graph of the function
f. For a function of two variables,
g, the set of all points (
x,
y,
z) where
z =
g(
x,
y) is the graph of the function
g. A sketch of the graph of such a function or relation would consist of all the salient parts of the function or relation which would include its relative extrema, its concavity and points of inflection, any points of discontinuity and its end behavior. All of these terms are more fully defined in calculus. Such graphs are useful in calculus to understand the nature and behavior of a function or relation.
Further reading
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External links