A
bone fracture (sometimes abbreviated
FRX or
Fx,
Fx, or
#) is a medical condition in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone. While many fractures are the result of high force
impactIn mechanics, an impact is a high force or shock applied over a short time period. Such a force or acceleration can sometimes have a greater effect than a lower force applied over a proportionally longer time period.- Theory :...
or
stressA stress fracture is one type of incomplete fracture in bones. It is caused by "unusual or repeated stress" This is in contrast to other types of fractures, which are usually characterized by a solitary, severe impact....
, bone fracture can also occur as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as
osteoporosisOsteoporosis is a disease of bone that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis the bone mineral density is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered...
, certain types of
cancerCancer is a class of diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled growth , invasion , and sometimes metastasis...
, or
osteogenesis imperfectaOsteogenesis imperfecta is a genetic bone disorder. People with OI are born with defective connective tissue, or without the ability to make it, usually because of a deficiency of Type-I collagen...
, where the fracture is then termed
pathologicalPathology is the study and diagnosis of disease through examination of organs, tissues, bodily fluids, and whole bodies...
fracture. Although
broken bone and
bone break are common colloquialisms for a bone fracture,
break is not a formal
orthopedicOrthopedic surgery or orthopedics is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system...
term.
Orthopedic
In
orthopedicOrthopedic surgery or orthopedics is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system...
medicineMedicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....
, fractures are classified in various ways.
- Closed fractures are those in which the skin is intact, while open (compound) fractures involve wounds that communicate with the fracture, or where fracture hematoma
A haematoma, or hematoma, is a collection of blood outside the blood vessels, generally the result of hemorrhage, or more specifically, internal bleeding....
is exposed, and may thus expose bone to contamination. Open injuries carry a higher risk of infectionAn infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. In an infection, the infecting organism seeks to utilize the host's resources to multiply, usually at the expense of the host. The infecting organism, or pathogen, interferes with the normal functioning of the...
; they require antibioticIn common usage, an antibiotic is a substance or compound that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria...
treatment and usually urgent surgical treatment (debridementDebridement is the medical removal of a patient's dead, damaged, or infected tissue to improve the healing potential of the remaining healthy tissue...
). This involves removal of all dirt, contamination, and dead tissue.
- Simple fractures are fractures that only occur along one line, splitting the bone into two pieces, while multi-fragmentary fractures, known as comminuted fractures, involve the bone splitting into multiple pieces. A simple, closed fracture is much easier to treat and has a much better prognosis
Prognosis is a medical term to describe the likely outcome of an illness. When applied to large populations, prognostic estimates can be very accurate: for example the statement "45% of patients with severe septic shock will die within 28 days" can be made with some confidence, because previous...
than an open, comminuted fracture.
Other considerations in fracture care are displacement (fracture gap) and angulation. If angulation or displacement is large,
reduction (manipulation) of the bone may be required and, in adults, frequently requires surgical care. These injuries may take longer to heal than injuries without displacement or angulation.
Another type of bone fracture is a
compression fracture. It usually occurs in the vertebrae, for example when the front portion of a
vertebraA vertebra is an individual bone in the flexible column that defines vertebrate animals, e.g. humans. The vertebral column encases and protects the spinal cord, which runs from the base of the cranium down the dorsal side of the animal until reaching the pelvis. From there, vertebra continue into...
in the spine collapses due to
osteoporosisOsteoporosis is a disease of bone that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis the bone mineral density is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered...
(a medical condition which causes bones to become brittle and susceptible to fracture, with or without trauma).
Other types of fracture are:
- Complete fracture: A fracture in which bone fragments separate completely.
- Incomplete fracture: A fracture in which the bone fragments are still partially joined.
- Linear fracture: A fracture that is parallel to the bone's long axis.
- Transverse fracture: A fracture that is at a right angle to the bone's long axis.
- Oblique fracture: A fracture that is diagonal to a bone's long axis.
- Spiral fracture: A fracture where at least one part of the bone has been twisted.
- Compacted fracture: A fracture caused when bone fragments are driven into each other.
OTA classification
The Orthopaedic Trauma Association, an association for
Orthopaedic surgeonsOrthopedic surgery or orthopedics is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system...
, devised an elaborate classification system to describe the injury accurately and guide treatment. There are five parts to the code:
- Bone: Description of a fracture starts by naming the bone:
(1)
HumerusThe humerus is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the elbow....
, (2)
RadiusThe radius is the bone of the forearm that extends from the lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist. The radius is situated on the lateral side of the ulna, which exceeds it in length and size. It is a long bone, prism-shaped and slightly curved longitudinally...
/
UlnaThe ulna is a long bone, prismatic in form. In anatomical position the ulna is placed at the medial side of the forearm closest to the body, parallel with the radius on both arms.-Articulations:The ulna articulates with:...
, (3)
FemurThe femur, or thigh bone, is the most proximal bone of the leg in vertebrates capable of walking or jumping, such as most land mammals, birds, many reptiles such as lizards, and amphibians such as frogs...
, (4)
TibiaThe tibia, shinbone, or shankbone is the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates and connects the knee with the ankle bones.The tibia is named for the greek aulos flute, also known as a tibia.-In humans:...
/
FibulaThe fibula or calf bone is a bone located on the lateral side of the tibia, with which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones, and, in proportion to its length, the most slender of all the long bones...
, (5)
SpineIn human anatomy, the vertebral column is a column usually consisting of 33 vertebrae, the sacrum, intervertebral discs, and the coccyx situated in the dorsal aspect of the torso, separated by spinal discs...
, (6)
PelvisIn human anatomy, the pelvis is the part of the trunk inferioposterior to the abdomen in the transition area between the trunk and the lower limbs...
, (24)
CarpusIn tetrapods, the carpals is the sole cluster of the bones in the wrist between the radius and ulna and the metacarpus. The bones of the carpus do not belong to individual fingers , whereas those of the metacarpus do. The corresponding part of the foot is the tarsus...
, (25) Metacarpals, (26)
PhalanxIn anatomy, phalanx bones are those that form the fingers and toes. In primates such as humans and monkeys, the thumb and big toe have two phalanges, while the other fingers and toes consist of three...
(Hand), (72)
TalusThe talus bone or astragalus is a bone in the tarsus of the foot that forms the lower part of the ankle joint through its articulations with the lateral and medial malleoli of the two bones of the lower leg, the tibia and fibula. Within the tarsus, it articulates with the calcaneus below and...
, (73)
CalcaneusIn humans, the calcaneus or heel bone is a bone of the tarsus of the foot which constitute the heel. In some other animals, it is the point of the hock.- Human anatomy :...
, (74) Navicular, (75)
CuneiformThere are three cuneiform bones in the human foot:* the medial cuneiform* the intermediate cuneiform also known as the middle* the lateral cuneiform...
, (76)
CuboidIn the human body, the cuboid bone is one of the seven tarsal bones of the foot.-Articulations:Distally, the Cuboid articulates with the fourth and fifth metatarsals, forming the fourth and fifth tarsometatarsal joints....
, (80)
LisFrancLisfranc may refer to:*Jacques Lisfranc de St. Martin*Lisfranc fracture*Lisfranc joint*Lisfranc ligament...
, (81) Metatarsals, (82)
PhalanxIn anatomy, phalanx bones are those that form the fingers and toes. In primates such as humans and monkeys, the thumb and big toe have two phalanges, while the other fingers and toes consist of three...
(Foot), (45)
PatellaThe patella, also known as the knee cap or kneepan, is a thick, circular-triangular bone which articulates with the femur and covers and protects the knee joint. It is the largest sesamoid bone in the human body. It is attached to the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle, which contracts to...
, (06)
ClavicleIn human anatomy, the clavicle or collar bone is classified as a long bone that makes up part of the shoulder girdle . It receives its name from the Latin clavicula because the bone rotates along its axis like a key when the shoulder is abducted. This movement is palpable...
, (09)
ScapulaIn anatomy, the scapula, omo , or shoulder blade, is the bone that connects the humerus with the clavicle ....
,
- Location: the part of the bone involved (e.g. shaft of the femur): proximal, diaphyseal
The diaphysis is the main or mid section of a long bone. It is made up of cortical bone and usually contains bone marrow and adipose tissue .-Clinical significance:...
, distal, malleolar.
- Type: It is important to note whether the fracture is simple or multifragmentary and whether it is closed or open: A=simple fracture, B=wedge fracture, C=complex fracture
- Group: The geometry of the fracture is also described by terms such as transverse, oblique, spiral
A spiral fracture is a bone fracture in which the bone has been twisted apart. It is highly unstable and may be diagnosed as an oblique fracture unless a proper x-ray has been taken. The spiral fracture will look like a corkscrew type which runs parallel with the axis of the broken bone...
, or segmental.
- Subgroup: Other features of the fracture are described in terms of displacement, angulation and shortening. A stable fracture is one which is likely to stay in a good (functional) position while it heals; an unstable one is likely to shorten, angulate or rotate before healing and lead to poor function in the long term.
Other classification systems
There are other systems used to classify different types of bone fractures:
- "Neer classification": humerus
The humerus is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the elbow....
- "Denis classification": spine
In human anatomy, the vertebral column is a column usually consisting of 33 vertebrae, the sacrum, intervertebral discs, and the coccyx situated in the dorsal aspect of the torso, separated by spinal discs...
- "Seinsheimer's Classification": femur
The femur, or thigh bone, is the most proximal bone of the leg in vertebrates capable of walking or jumping, such as most land mammals, birds, many reptiles such as lizards, and amphibians such as frogs...
- "Frykman classification": radius and ulna
- "Letournel and Judet Classification": Acetabular Fractures
The acetabulum is a concave surface of the pelvis. The head of the femur meets with the pelvis at the acetabulum, forming the hip joint.-Structure:...
Pain
Although bone tissue itself contains no nociceptors, bone fracture is very painful for several reasons:
- Breaking in the continuity of the periosteum
Periosteum is a membrane that lines the outer surface of all bones, except at the joints of long bones. Endosteum lines the inner surface of all bones....
, with or without similar discontinuity in endosteumThe endosteum is a thin layer of connective tissue which lines the surface of the bony tissue that forms the medullary cavity of long bones. This endosteal surface is usually resorbed during long periods of malnutrition resulting in less cortical thickness...
, as both contain multiple nociceptors.
- Edema
Edema or oedema , formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin, or in one or more cavities of the body...
of nearby soft tissues caused by bleeding of torn periosteal blood vessels evokes pressure pain.
- Muscle spasms trying to hold bone fragments in place
Bone healing
The natural process of healing a fracture starts when the injured bone and surrounding tissues bleed, forming what's called
fracture Hematoma. The blood coagulates to form a blood clot situated between the broken fragments. Within a few days
blood vessels growAngiogenesis is a physiological process involving the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. Though there has been some debate over this, vasculogenesis is the term used for spontaneous blood-vessel formation, and intussusception is the term for new blood vessel formation by...
into the jelly-like matrix of the blood clot. The new blood vessels bring
phagocyteWhite blood cells , or leukocytes , are cells of the immune system defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Five different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a...
s to the area, which gradually remove the non-viable material. The blood vessels also bring
fibroblastA fibroblast is a type of cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, the structural framework for animal tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing...
s in the walls of the vessels and these multiply and produce
collagenCollagen is the main protein of connective tissue in animals and the most abundant protein in mammals, making up about 25% to 35% of the whole-body protein content. It is naturally found exclusively in metazoa, including sponges. In muscle tissue it serves as a major component of endomysium...
fibres. In this way the blood clot is replaced by a matrix of collagen. Collagen's rubbery consistency allows bone fragments to move only a small amount unless severe or persistent force is applied.
At this stage, some of the fibroblasts begin to lay down bone matrix (calcium hydroxyapatite) in the form of insoluble
crystalA crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is crystallography...
s. This mineralization of the collagen matrix stiffens it and transforms it into bone. In fact, bone
is a mineralized collagen matrix; if the mineral is dissolved out of bone, it becomes rubbery. Healing bone
callusA fibrocartilage callus is a temporary formation of fibroblasts and chondroblasts which forms at the area of a bone fracture as the bone attempts to heal itself. The cells eventually dissipate and become dormant, lying in the resulting extracellular matrix that is the new bone....
is on average sufficiently mineralized to show up on
X-rayX-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 10 to 0.01 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz and energies in the range 120 eV to 120 keV. They are shorter in wavelength than UV rays...
within 6 weeks in adults and less in children. This initial "woven" bone does not have the strong mechanical properties of mature bone. By a process of remodeling, the woven bone is replaced by mature "lamellar" bone. The whole process can take up to 18 months, but in adults the strength of the healing bone is usually 80% of normal by 3 months after the injury.
Several factors can help or hinder the
bone healingBone healing, or fracture healing, is a proliferative physiological process in which the body facilitates the repair of a bone fracture....
process. For example, any form of
nicotineNicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants which constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of dry weight of tobacco, with biosynthesis taking place in the roots, and accumulating in the leaves...
hinders the process of bone healing, and adequate nutrition (including
calciumCalcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust...
intake) will help the bone healing process. Weight-bearing stress on bone, after the bone has healed sufficiently to bear the weight, also builds bone strength.
The bone shards can also embed in the muscle causing great pain.
Although there are theoretical concerns about NSAIDs slowing the rate of healing, there is not enough evidence to warrant withholding this type analgesic.
Treatment
At the hospital, closed fractures are diagnosed by taking an
X-rayX-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 10 to 0.01 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz and energies in the range 120 eV to 120 keV. They are shorter in wavelength than UV rays...
photograph of the injury.
Since
bone healingBone healing, or fracture healing, is a proliferative physiological process in which the body facilitates the repair of a bone fracture....
is a natural process which will most often occur, fracture treatment aims to ensure the best possible
function of the injured part after healing. Bone fractures are typically treated by restoring the fractured pieces of bone to their natural positions (if necessary), and maintaining those positions while the bone heals. Often, a physician will align the bone, called
reductionReduction is a medical procedure to restore a fracture or dislocation to the correct alignment. When a bone fractures, the fragments lose their alignment in the form of displacement or angulation. For the fractured bone to heal without any deformity the bony fragments must be re-aligned to their...
, in good position and verify the improved alignment with an X-ray. This process is extremely painful without anesthesia, about as painful as breaking the bone itself. To this end, a fractured limb is usually immobilized with a
plasterThe term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris , lime plaster, or cement plaster. This article deals mainly with plaster of Paris / gypsum plaster....
or
fiberglassGlass-reinforced plastic is a material or fiber-reinforced plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine fibers made of glass. Like carbon fiber reinforced plastic, the composited material is commonly referred to by the name of its reinforcing fibers...
cast or splint which holds the bones in position and immobilizes the joints above and below the fracture. When the initial post-fracture edema or swelling goes down, the fracture may be placed in a removable brace or orthosis. If being treated with surgery,
surgical nailsAn intramedullary rod, also known as an intramedullary nail , is a metal rod forced into the medullary cavity of a bone. IM nails have long been used to treat fractures of long bones of the body. Gerhard Küntscher is credited with the first use of this device in 1939, during World War II, for...
, screws, plates and wires are used to hold the fractured bone together more directly. Alternatively, fractured bones may be treated by the
Ilizarov methodThe Ilizarov apparatus are used in surgical procedures to lengthen or reshape limb bones. In addition, the procedure is often used to treat complex and/or open bone fractures, where conventional treatment techniques cannot be used...
which is a form of external fixator.
Occasionally smaller bones, such as toes, may be treated without the cast, by
buddy wrappingBuddy wrapping or buddy taping is the act of bandaging a damaged finger or toe together with a healthy one. The bandage is usually stiff, not allowing the digits to move; the healthy digit acts as a splint, keeping the damaged one in a natural position for healing...
them, which serves a similar function to making a cast. By allowing only limited movement, fixation helps preserve anatomical alignment while enabling
callusA fibrocartilage callus is a temporary formation of fibroblasts and chondroblasts which forms at the area of a bone fracture as the bone attempts to heal itself. The cells eventually dissipate and become dormant, lying in the resulting extracellular matrix that is the new bone....
formation, towards the target of achieving union.
SurgicalSurgery is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance, or sometimes for some other reason...
methods of treating fractures have their own risks and benefits, but usually surgery is done only if conservative treatment has failed or is very likely to fail. With some fractures such as
hip fractureA hip fracture is a fracture in the proximal end of the femur , near the hip joint.The term "hip fracture" is commonly used to refer to four different fracture patterns and is often due to osteoporosis; in the vast majority of cases, a hip fracture is a fragility fracture due to a fall or minor...
s (usually caused by
osteoporosisOsteoporosis is a disease of bone that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis the bone mineral density is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered...
or
Osteogenesis ImperfectaOsteogenesis imperfecta is a genetic bone disorder. People with OI are born with defective connective tissue, or without the ability to make it, usually because of a deficiency of Type-I collagen...
), surgery is offered routinely, because the complications of non-operative treatment include
deep vein thrombosisIn medicine, deep vein thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot in a deep vein...
(DVT) and
pulmonary embolismPulmonary embolism is a blockage of the main artery of the lung or one of its branches by a substance that has travelled from elsewhere in the body through the bloodstream . Usually this is due to embolism of a thrombus from the deep veins in the legs, a process termed venous thromboembolism...
, which are more dangerous than surgery. When a joint surface is damaged by a fracture, surgery is also commonly recommended to make an accurate anatomical reduction and restore the smoothness of the joint.
InfectionAn infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. In an infection, the infecting organism seeks to utilize the host's resources to multiply, usually at the expense of the host. The infecting organism, or pathogen, interferes with the normal functioning of the...
is especially dangerous in bones, due to their limited blood flow. Bone tissue is predominantly
extracellular matrixIn biology, the extracellular matrix is the extracellular part of animal tissue that usually provides structural support to the animal cells in addition to performing various other important functions. The extracellular matrix is the defining feature of connective tissue in animals.Extracellular...
, rather than living cells, and the few blood vessels needed to support this low metabolism are only able to bring a limited number of immune cells to an injury to fight infection. For this reason, open fractures and osteotomies call for very careful
antisepticAntiseptics are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction...
procedures and prophylactic antibiotics.
Occasionally a surgeon uses
bone graftingBone grafting is a surgical procedure that replaces missing bone with material from the patient's own body, an artificial, synthetic, or natural substitute...
to treat a fracture.
Sometimes bones are reinforced with metal. These
implantAn implant is a medical device manufactured to replace a missing biological structure, support a damaged biological structure, or enhance and existing biological structure. Medical implants are man-made devices, in contrast to a transplant, which is a transplanted biomedical tissue...
s must be designed and installed with care.
Stress shieldingStress shielding refers to the reduction in bone density as a result of removal of normal stress from the bone by an implant . This is because by Wolff's law, which states that bone in a healthy person or animal will remodel in response to the loads it is placed under...
occurs when plates or screws carry too large of a portion of the bone's load, causing
atrophyAtrophy is the partial or complete wasting away of a part of the body. Causes of atrophy include poor nourishment, poor circulation, loss of hormonal support, loss of nerve supply to the target organ, disuse or lack of exercise or disease intrinsic to the tissue itself...
. This problem is reduced, but not eliminated, by the use of low-
modulusIn solid mechanics, Young's modulus is a measure of the stiffness of an isotropic elastic material. It is also known as the Young modulus, modulus of elasticity, elastic modulus or tensile modulus...
materials, including
titaniumTitanium is a chemical element with the symbol Ti and atomic number 22. Sometimes called the “space age metal”, it has a low density and is a strong, lustrous, corrosion-resistant transition metal with a silver color.Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum, among other...
and its alloys. The heat generated by the friction of installing hardware can easily accumulate and damage bone tissue, reducing the strength of the connections. If dissimilar metals are installed in contact with one another (i.e., a titanium plate with
cobaltCobalt is a hard, lustrous, gray metal, a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27. Although cobalt-based colors and pigments have been used since ancient times for making jewelry and paints, and miners have long used the name kobold ore for some minerals, the free metallic cobalt was...
-
chromiumChromium is a chemical element which has the symbol Cr and atomic number 24, first element in Group 6. It is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish and has a high melting point. It is also odourless, tasteless, and malleable...
alloy or
stainless steelIn metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox, is defined as a steel alloy with a minimum of 11% chromium content by mass. Stainless steel does not stain, corrode, or rust as easily as ordinary steel...
screws), galvanic
corrosionCorrosion is the disintegration of a material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means a loss of electrons of metals reacting with water and oxygen. Weakening of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms is a...
will result. The metal
ionAn ion is an atom or molecule where the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge...
s produced can damage the bone locally and may cause systemic effects as well.
Some doctors further treat bones using electrical bone growth stimulation or
osteostimulationOsteostimulation is a technique for healing bone injuries or defects, through the active stimulation of osteoblast proliferation and differentiation as evidenced by increased levels of DNA synthesis and of the osteoblast markers osteocalcin and alkaline phosphatase. Through an ionic exchange,...
or both.
In children
In children, whose bones are still developing, there are risks of either a growth plate injury or a
greenstick fractureA greenstick fracture is a fracture in a young, soft bone in which the bone bends and partially breaks. A person's bones become harder and more brittle with age. Greenstick fractures occur almost exclusively during infancy and childhood when one's bones are soft...
.
- A greenstick fracture occurs due to mechanical failure on the tension side. That is, since the bone is not as brittle as it would be in an adult, it does not completely fracture, but rather exhibits bowing without complete disruption of the bone's cortex
In anatomy and zoology the cortex is the outermost layer of an organ. Organs with well-defined cortical layers include kidneys, adrenal glands, ovaries, the thymus, and portions of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, the most well-known of all cortices.The cerebral cortex is the thin gray...
in the surface opposite the applied force.
- Growth plate injuries, as in Salter-Harris fractures
Salter-Harris Fractures: Descriptive terms for fractures affecting the growth plate of a bone. Once bone growth has completed, the term "Salter-Harris Fracture" no longer applies.-Types:There are six types of Salter-Harris fractures:...
, require careful treatment and accurate reduction to make sure that the bone continues to grow normally.
- Plastic deformation
In physics and materials science, plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces. For example, a solid piece of metal or plastic being bent or pounded into a new shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within...
of the bone, in which the bone permanently bends but does not break, is also possible in children. These injuries may require an osteotomyAn osteotomy is a surgical operation whereby a bone is cut to shorten, lengthen, or change its alignment. It is sometimes performed to correct a hallux valgus, or to straighten a bone that has healed crookedly following a fracture. It is also used to correct a coxa vara, genu valgum, and genu varum...
(bone cut) to realign the bone if it is fixed and cannot be realigned by closed methods.
- Certain fractures are known to occur mainly in pediatric age group, as fracture clavicle
In human anatomy, the clavicle or collar bone is classified as a long bone that makes up part of the shoulder girdle . It receives its name from the Latin clavicula because the bone rotates along its axis like a key when the shoulder is abducted. This movement is palpable...
& supracondylar fracture of HumerusThe humerus is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the elbow....
.
External links